- Table 1. Tourist Holiday Travel Between 1994-1998
- 1994 Travel Tourists: 823,600
- 1995 Travel Tourists: 795,700
- 1996 Travel Tourists: 820,800
- 1997 Travel Tourists: 804,800
- 1998 Travel Tourists: 686,900
- SourceKenya Central Bureau of Statistics
- Table 2. Hotel bed-nights occupied by zone, 1993-1997
- ZONE 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
- Coastal-beach 3,762.0 3,071.5 3,059.6 3,144.9 3,074.4
- Other 196.2 185.2 166.7 70.9 71.5
- Coast Hinterland 146.2 133.2 120.3 114.2 59.0
- Nairobi-high class 649.9 550.7 613.7 774.1 801.5
- Other 499.0 454.7 413.8 313.0 311.8
- Central 369.0 299.0 275.4 253.4 218.1
- Masailand 372.7 247.8 245.3 237.1 215.0
- Nyanza basin 105.6 82.8 78.6 114.3 88.2
- Western 79.9 69.9 65.5 33.0 64.3
- Northern 8.3 15.2 15.9 6.3 6.5
- Total- occupied 6,188.8 5,110.0 5,054.8 5,061.2 4,910.3
- Total -available 11,908.9 11,908.9 11,562.2 11,354.5 9,516.6
- Table 3 Number of visitors to parks and game reserves, 1993-1997
- Zone 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997
- Nairobi 164.6 163.3 113.5 158.3 149.6
- Animal Orphanage 155.3 182.0 212.1 210.6 193.7
- Amboseli 121.1 159.5 114.8 109.1 117.2
- Tsavo west 102.9 105.4 93.1 93.6 88.6
- Tsavo East 135.8 132.4 228.8 137.5 123.2
- Aberdare 60.8 60.2 70.1 60.2 59.0
- Lake Nakuru 178.6 164.3 166.8 156.9 132.1
- Masai Mara 133.1 138.2 133.2 130.3 118.3
- Bamburi nature park 93.2 98.9 109.2 107.0 86.8
- Malindi marine 41.1 39.4 38.8 39.3 27.0
- Lake Bogoria 37.2 43.2 14.2 12.2 24.5
- Meru 7.4 7.9 7.3 7.8 4.1
- Shimba Hills 24.8 31.6 20.0 23.4 22.5
- Mount Kenya 18.0 17.2 17.2 17.1 14.8
- Samburu 21.5 9.2 9.1 9.1 8.3
- Kisite/ Mpunguti 27.5 34.8 32.4 39.9 35.1
- Mombasa marine 43.3 48.0 23.9 21.7 15.2
- Watamu marine 31.7 32.1 16.1 20.2 19.4
- Hells Gate 47.4 44.9 50.1 52.1 47.2
- ImpalaSanctuary 59.1 5.5 3.5 65.6 62.4
- Other** 16.6 9.6 18.9 14.8 15.5
- Total 1,521.0 1,527.5 1,493.1 1,488.7 1,364.5
- ** Other Includes Mount Elgon, ol-Donyo Sabuk, Marsabit, Saiwa Swamp, Sibiloi, Ruma National park, Mwea National reserve, Central Island National park, Nasolot national park Reaserve and Kakamega national reserve.
- Source: Kenya Economic Survey 1998
A Confessional Tale.
Dr. Robert Stiefvater
North Carolina Central University
Department of Physical Education and Recreation
Dr. Asuncion T. Suren
Florida State University
Department of Human Services and Studies
Mar 13, 2000
It has been stated in the literature that through ignorance or neglect, college programs that teach park design and train students to be recreation professionals are excluding the study of deviant recreation from course content, field work assignments and textbook readings. Consequently, students are not prepared to deal programmatically or administratively with deviant acts as they occur in recreational settings. A qualitative approach was used to investigate the perceptions of park and recreation administrators as they relate to the presentation of deviant recreation in the classroom. Park and recreation administrators contend that educators are not adequately preparing students to deal with the powerful influence of deviant recreation and in terms of professional preparation, students need to understand and be able to address the complexity of deviant recreation as programmers and administrators. Through a combination of course work and practical experience, the concept of deviant recreation and its affect on recreation agencies could best be presented.Correspondence should be directed to:
Robert E. Stiefvater, Jr., Re.D.
Assistant Professor,
Department of Physical Education and Recreation
North Carolina Central University
P.O. Box 19542
Durham, NC 27707
wk # (919) 530-7429
fax # (919) 530-6156
e-mail address: coaster@nccu.edu
The role of deviant recreation
in the curriculum of recreation students:
A confessional tale.
Introduction
In the spring of 1989, a popular rap artist was scheduled to play a
concert at a major urban university’s campus. A young student programmer
collecting tickets and checking student I.D.’s was approached by several
gang members who wanted to see the popular artist. When the student denied
them tickets and stated that only students were allowed in, one of the
gang members, apparently under the influence of drugs, pulled out a gun
and shot him at close range directly in his chest.
The student and the other programmers had followed the standard program planning protocols. The concert was located in an appropriately sized venue, marketing strategies proved to be successful as the nominally priced tickets sold quickly, and the excitement on university’s campus was felt by both the students and the community. The programmers, however, had not fully assessed all the scenarios potentially associated with programming a concert showcasing a nationally renowned rap artist for $2.00. They did not stop to think that advertising in the community would arouse people other than Temple students and that some individuals might take extreme exception to not being included. As novice programmers, it never occurred to them that the combination of a nominally priced ticket, a popular rap artist, and advertisement outside of the university’s walls might result in death.
As college students majoring in recreation, the author’s curriculum included ethical issues in the field of Recreation and Leisure Studies, as well as trends in professional preparation, traditional and contemporary leisure theories, administrative practices, and other related competencies. However, we did not learn about, nor were we exposed to, how socially deviant behavior impacts programming. Neither author can recall learning how park and recreation administrators establish operating procedures to deal with vandalism or acts of violence.
As a result of the tragedy at that university, and our own interests in the topic, we reviewed literature in the field of recreation and leisure to see what had been written that addressed professional preparation or competencies related to deviant behavior. The relationship between leisure studies and deviant behavior was not difficult to find. Nash (1953), one of the first contemporary recreation professionals to discuss the concept of "good," "bad," and "best" uses of leisure, describes "sub-zero" levels of leisure pursuits where injury or detriment to self or acts performed against society may occur. Nash dealt with "bad" uses of leisure to juxtapose the "good" and "best." He did not detail outcomes of "bad" uses.
Stating "we can use our leisure for good or for bad. We can improve or destroy ourselves and help or harm ourselves," Brightbill argues that leisure is not always "good" or "positive" (1960, p. 43). An interesting assertion, however, he too provided little detail with regard to outcomes or ramifications. Kraus (1990, p. 291) described "several forms of leisure-time activity that are of questionable or of borderline morality--if not actually illegal--and that are therefore referred to as ‘marginal’ recreation activities." He includes in these activities sex, drug use, and gambling. Kraus concluded that marginal recreational activities needed more examination.
Curtis (1979) was among the first leisure scholars to discuss "deviant" recreation and address the outcomes or ramification with respect to practioners. He referred to deviant recreation as those recreational activities that fall outside societal norms. Curtis, referring to deviant recreation, introduced the term "Purple Recreation" and uses the color purple as a metaphor for the penumbral activities "that lie in the half-light, half dark zone" in between what society calls "good" and what it calls "bad" (Curtis, 1979). Curtis defines purple recreation as: "acts and pursuits that bring a degree of pleasure or escape to the participants, but which suggest gross self-indulgence, greed, immorality, or cruelty and arouse repugnance in most of the remainder of society," (1979, p. 283).
While our review of the literature yielded theoretical discussions concerning deviant recreation, and to a lesser degree, the ramifications of such behaviors. However, the impact of deviant recreation and how future recreation professionals would be instructed in combating deviant recreation was less in evidence. We did find several writings in the 1988 SPRE Annual on Education by Curtis and other leisure professionals who conversed on the role of purple recreation in society and in the classroom. Curtis stated:
Curtis’ article prompted several educators into a point-counterpoint discussion on the topic. McMillen (1988) contends that:
Upon reading these discussions and realizing that other educators have acknowledged the importance of incorporating an understanding of deviant recreation into curricula, we decided to ask parks and recreation administrators if they felt that the it was important as well. Specifically, we wanted to know if deviant recreation impacted their daily operations, and if so, were their entry-level professionals (our recent college graduates) competent in this area.
The Study
Parks and recreations administrators from
the Midwest, who work in the public sector, were identified from the National
Recreation and Parks Association membership list and were invited to participate
in the study. Of the ninety-eight members mailed a demographic survey,
fifty-seven participated.
Because this investigation centered on the perspective of park and recreation professionals regarding the concept of deviant recreation, a qualitative inquiry was appropriate for the study. A telephone survey procedure was used to gather the data. It has inherent characteristics for providing an accurate portrayal of current conditions and "encourages more frequent and reliable data collection, and is personal without being intrusive" (Piper, 1988, p. 186). Though it is not the nature or purpose of qualitative inquiry to produce data that is generalizable, the descriptive conclusions that emerge as the result of this research are useful in furthering understanding in the field.
Interview questions were developed through a review of related. In addition, questions were reviewed and suggestions made by seven faculty members from Indiana University. A draft of the survey questions was pilot tested on local park and recreation administrators. Subsequent revisions to the survey completed the development of the study instrument.
We first asked park and recreation administrators what impact deviant recreation had on their programs. Each and every administrator indicated that deviant recreation had an effect on their programs, ranging from minor to profound. Regardless of the size or location of their agency, administrators cited numerous examples of acts that can be considered as deviant recreation. Be it stealing tree saplings from a park, use of alcohol and other drugs in facilities, having sex in parks, acts of vandalism, or gun play and gang activity, the participants in this study indicated that deviant recreation is a daily occurrence, which affects every aspect of their operations. Additionally, administrators reported that understanding the impact of deviant recreation is an essential competency and that new recreation graduates did not have the skills necessary to deal with this phenomenon.
When asked, "how can students who are studying recreation & park administration be best prepared to deal with varying forms of deviant recreation," park and recreation administrators stated that the first priority is validation and acknowledgment. One administrator said, "(we have) to be aware that it exists and that is exists for a reason. We must be sensitive to the fact that people are satisfying needs and perhaps, through poor leisure skills, this is the only way to do that." Another stated that, "deviant recreation is the reality, not the theory." In fact, the notion of "reality" was a predominant theme. Administrators overwhelmingly believed that professional preparation needs to be grounded in the "real world." One stated that students need to be "taught the reality of recreation in different environments." Another said, "students need to learn about the real world."
Two themes emerged from the research in response to what we, as educators should be doing with regard to professional preparation. The first related to course work and the other to experience.
[Editorial note: courses or class content areas that appear in red were cited specifically by the park and recreation administrators who participated in this study and the "bold/italicized" statements are their direct quotes]
Course Work
The first step in developing curricula
to address these issues is to appraise our fundamental mission. Do we believe,
as a profession, that it is part of our raison d’être to provide
leisure services under the umbrella of a human service agency? If this
is the case, and we maintain that it is, then we must prepare students
to view the entire spectrum of leisure pursuits as well as the people who
pursue them. Central to this approach is a basic understanding of leisure,
or as one park and recreation administrator said, "why we do this."
This begins early in the educational process. Students should be introduced
to the various types of services that encompass the profession as well
as the variety of populations it serves.
It must be emphasized that no one class can prepare students in dealing with the complexities associated with deviant recreation. Consequently, the curricular approach should be collaborative, cooperative, and continual. It should build on a solid general college studies curriculum and extend to professional service such as volunteer experiences, practicums, and internships. Existing courses, for the most part, could integrate sections that specifically address deviant recreation.
Many of the content areas, as identified by the administrators as needed courses, are already part of a general college studies in a liberal arts education, such as: sociology/psychology,anthropology, philosophy, criminology, etc. We must build upon the foundation with material relevant to our unique perspective. Courses that deal in leisure theories need to explore the social and psychological aspects of leisure as well as subjective aspects of the leisure experience. This will provide students with basic knowledge in which to make applications such as problem solving, or role-playing.
As part of this theme, course units that discuss cultural/social diversity need to be part of the curricula. The administrators recommended that students "study specifically about urban problems" and "be exposed to issues surrounding at-risk youth." Administrators stressed the importance of students’ "understanding differences in leisure wants" and that "students need to learn about the real world, life is different for different people"
Administrators felt that there was a need for sensitivity training. They indicated the need for "learning the humanist side of it," and that "teaching students to be open-minded" are important skills and that students need to be exposed to other cultures and peoples’ perspectives.
Courses that teach the history of leisure and leisure service agencies should discuss deviant recreation and the role that various agencies have had in dealing with issues of their era. For instance, the text by Cross, The social history of leisure since 1600, is an excellent source of historical information with regard to social deviance and the manner in which society responded.
Topic areas or modules should be added to existing Park and Recreation/Leisure Services courses that deal with deviant recreation in today’s society. Many existing courses can be modified in order to satisfy areas that administrators felt needed to be addressed.
Park and recreation administrators believe that students "need to know what the effect that these types of activities [deviant recreation] have on the goals and mission of a department." This issue can be addressed in Leadership, Management, or Administration classes.
Administrators indicated that "there are a variety of leisure wants and that you should try and program to meet those wants in a positive manner" and that we need to "program more activities that are goal oriented, that promote self-esteem or team work." They expressed that "we need to do a better job of developing needs assessment skills" and that students need to "understand that recreation can be used as intervention." These are the types of skills that Programming classes should address.
Two areas of concern; "learning how deviant recreation affects the program financially" and "learning about various funding sources, like grant writing or combining resources such as value-added partnerships" could be covered in Budgeting/Finance classes. In that recreation is part of a social service umbrella, and that collaboration is critical to any agencies’ success, the importance of learning of value added partnerships cannot be understated.
Additionally, administrators also stressed the importance of the "need to know how to ‘sell’ a program, and how to develop public relations skills," areas that would be included in Marketing classes. Facility/Maintenance classes should teach students "how to create a safe environment" as well as the need "to be aware of the reality of metal detectors and guards in today’s facilities."
Administrators indicated that "students must read and become familiar with literature in this area" and that "students need to know facts about a wide range of illicit behavior based on good research." Trends and Issues in Recreation, Parks, and Leisure Services course should address these issues.
Practical Experience
Practical experience was the other theme
that emerged from our interviews. Park and recreation administrators believed
that acquiring practical experience is crucial in the professional development
process. They stressed the importance of field experiences, volunteer hours,
internships and practicums. They did not, however, relegate practical experience
to just students, they feel that professors need this experience as well.
There was the sentiment that educators exist in "ivory towers"
and are out of touch with contemporary problems of parks and recreation
agencies. One administrator indicated that "college professors would
be shocked if they knew what really went on down here."
To contend with what they perceive as a lack of practical experience, they feel that a system that utilizes the experiences of administrators must be incorporated. This can best be done in one of two ways: by having the park and recreation administrators (or special populations such as at-risk youth or gang members) come to the classroom; or by creating situations whereby students can go directly to the agencies through volunteer hours, fieldwork, practicums, or internships. Administrators stressed that the exposure should be done early in the students’ career to best maximize the experience.
With regard to practical experience, park and recreation administrators felt that students need:
"practical experience in neighborhood centers that are socio-economically diverse . . . exposure to people of or with different values and backgrounds, . . . field work in urban areas, physically see the urban atmosphere and how ‘at-risk’ kids behave and think . . . be able to talk to staff and observe and work in programs." They also shared ideas of bringing this experience into the classroom:
"guest lecturers/experts from the field to give examples of deviant recreation and preventative measures that they’ve taken . . . have ‘real life’ professionals come into the class to tell of ‘real world’ experiences . . . ‘show and tell’ type films."
In terms of professional preparation, both the scholars and professionals have indicated that students need to understand and address the complexity of deviant recreation as programmers and administrators and that "they need to be exposed to the concept early in their studies."
Conclusion
Educators and administrators alike have
acknowledged the need to emphasize the study of deviant recreation in curricula
and that it is an important aspect of professional preparation for the
"real world." However, recreation administrators believe that educators’
perceptions of the "real world" are not accurate. Consequently students
are not being properly prepared to handle programming and administrative
issues that relate to deviant recreation.
This study should serve as a catalyst for change. If educators are not incorporating theory on deviant recreation in their introduction and philosophy classes, perhaps now is the time to do so. Just as the need for marketing courses emerged in the early 1980s in response to the changing economic environment, and as risk management courses evolved as a result of lawsuits and greater concerns for safe recreational environment, now is the time to incorporate the study of deviant recreation into recreation and leisure studies curriculum. In terms of professional preparation, students need to understand and be able to address the complexity of deviant recreation as programmers and administrators. Through a combination of course work and practical experience, the concept of deviant recreation and its affect on recreation agencies could best be presented.
References
- Cross, G. (1990). A Social History of Leisure Since 1600. State College, PA: Venture Publishing, Inc.
- Curtis, J.E. (1979). Recreation: Theory and Practice. Saint Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company.
- Curtis, J. E. (1988). Purple Recreation. SPRE Annual on Education, 3, 73-77.
- Foley, J. (1988). Purple recreation: point-counterpoint. SPRE Annual on Education, 3 , 73-77.
- Godbey, G. (1988). A response to purple recreation. SPRE Annual on Education, 3, 73-77.
- Kraus, R. (1990). (4th ed.) Recreation and leisure in modern society, New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishing.
- Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
- McMillan, J.H. & Schumacher, S. (1993). Research in education: a conceptual introduction. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.
- McMillen, J.B. (1988). Some comments on purple recreation. SPRE Annual on Education, 3, 73-77.
- Piper, T.D. (1988). Telephone surveying: An effective and efficient assessment of evaluation technique. NASPA Journal, 25(3), 185-190.
The Benefits of Physical Activity for Cognitive Functioning among The Ageing
Howard R. GrayBrigham Young University
Therapeutic Recreation and Gerontology Program
David V. Stimpson
Brigham Young University
Department of Psychology
Steven Heiner
Brigham Young University
Department of Health Sciences
Gary Measom
Brigham Young University
Department of Nursing
Accepted: September, 2004
- ABSTRACT
-
Given the trend toward a wellness model with health benefits-based research and the 21st Century role of leisure services in promoting health for older adults, the Huntsman World Senior Games research team sponsored a study to determine how leisure services activity relates to health benefits of cognitive functioning among senior athletes. Public venues for leisure services were utilized for activities of basketball, bowling, bridge, cycling, golf, horseshoes, mountain biking, racquetball, road races, soccer, softball, swimming, table tennis, track & field, triathlon, and volleyball. Participants in these events provided information about activity-based health benefits on a variety of physiological and psychological assessments. The physiological assessments included: bone density, glaucoma screening, blood pressure, mammography, and colon cancer screening. Self-report psychological assessment included lifestyle indicators such as amount, frequency, and kinds of physical activity; consumption data on alcohol, tobacco and medications; and the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (MMMSE, Teng and Chui, 1987). The MMMSE is an often used questionnaire for assessing cognitive impairment and dementia. The physiological and psychological assessments were administered by an interdisciplinary research team of nursing, leisure services, and gerontology faculty and students, who were trained in the appropriate procedures associated with each assessment. The research procedures were piloted during previous Huntsman World Senior Games events (1993-1997). Each phase of pilot research provided important critiques and modifications of the assessment process.
- Correspondence should be directed to:
Howard R. Gray
Huntsman World Senior Games Research Team
Department of Recreation Management and Youth Leadership
Suite 273-L Richards Building
Provo, UT 84602
Phone: (801) 378-3506
email: Howard_Gray@byu.edu
The Benefits of Physical Activity for Cognitive Functioning among The Ageing
Introduction
Two historic changes are shaping how gerontology services will be conceived and funded in the 21st Century (Payne, 1998). Fundamental changes in health and health care and a simultaneous repositioning of municipal leisure services have prompted the Huntsman World Senior Games to establish strong research linkages between health care services and municipal leisure services in St. George, Utah. The new health benefit-related research initiatives are interdisciplinary and will have a major impact on the future of gerontology. The changes in health and health care have created a fundamental debate about the nature of disease as well as quality of care issues. One recent authoritative study about older adults concluded that more than 70 percent of morbidity and mortality in the United States is preventable (Nesse & Williams, 1994). In economic terms, health purposes consume approximately 14% of the United States economy. If 70 percent of the morbidity and mortality costs are preventable, then it is possible to change about 10% of the United States economy. New health promotion and disease prevention strategies will have to take into consideration the healthy lifestyle circumstances and leisure behavioral patterns of older adults. For municipal leisure services, in particular, there is a fundamental debate about the nature of public services gravitating toward the public policy area of ÒhealthÓ or another policy area, such as Òtourism.Ó Research indicates that approximately four out of five residents of the United States and Canada use local parks and leisure services (Godbey, Graefe & James, 1992; Harper, Neider, Godbey & Lamont, 1996). Among the age cohort participating in the Huntsman World Senior Games, studies indicate that a vast majority of the 50 years and older cohort use local leisure services. In fact, those most likely to use local leisure services ÒfrequentlyÓ are between the ages of 66 and 75. Additionally, this older group of participants cite health benefits as the prime reason for their participation in leisure services. Godbey (1992, 1996) identified frequent references to the health benefits of Òa chance for exerciseÓ and Òstress reductionÓ among older adults. There is some precedent of health research guidelines targeting specific leisure services that have measurable wellness outcomes. The Healthy People 2000 statement of national opportunities from the United States Department of Health and Human Services identifies increases in community availability and accessibility of physical activity sponsored by public leisure services. These venues for leisure service activity are similar to those used by the Huntsman World Senior Games in St. George, Utah. They include the following: hiking, biking and fitness trails, public swimming pools and acres of open space facilities (Healthy People 2000, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services).
Gerontology services in the 21st Century will be using a wellness model that combines the concerns of health and leisure services. Changes in health policy and health care organizations will seek to extend healthy lives and establish health benefit-based research. At the same time, public leisure services are beginning to utilize the concept of benefits-based research to demonstrate that programs and services contribute to the health of both individuals and communities. Health benefits-based research documenting a relationship between active lifestyles and physical well-being has long been recognized in the literature. Physical activity has also been demonstrated to have positive consequences for a number of psychological dimensions. Gleser and Mendelberg (1990) identified physical activity as an effective treatment for moderate depression and for enhancing self-esteem. More recently, Covey and Felts (1991) reported that physically active adolescent women had better coping characteristics and a more positive self image than a sedentary comparison group. Stimpson, Heiner, and Gray (1993) found that active people, regardless of age or gender, have higher self-esteem than sedentary people. Stimpson, Heiner and Gray (1993) reported that physical activity is an even more important accompaniment of high self-esteem for senior adults than it is for young people.
The Statement of Purpose
The present study extended the examination of the health benefits of a physically active lifestyle to explore its possible advantages in cognitive functioning. Specifically, it was hypothesized that a moderate level of physical activity may suppress, or even eliminate, the decline in cognitive functioning that often accompanies ageing.
The Procedure
Given the trend toward a wellness model with health benefits-based research and the 21st Century role of leisure services in promoting health for older adults, the Huntsman World Senior Games research team sponsored a study to determine how leisure services activity relates to health benefits of cognitive functioning among senior athletes. Public venues for leisure services were utilized for activities of basketball, bowling, bridge, cycling, golf, horseshoes, mountain biking, racquetball, road races, soccer, softball, swimming, table tennis, track & field, triathlon, and volleyball. Participants in these events provided information about activity-based health benefits on a variety of physiological and psychological assessments. The physiological assessments included: bone density, glaucoma screening, blood pressure, mammography, and colon cancer screening. Self-report psychological assessment included lifestyle indicators such as amount, frequency, and kinds of physical activity; consumption data on alcohol, tobacco and medications; and the Modified Mini-Mental State Examination (MMMSE, Teng and Chui, 1987). The MMMSE is an often used questionnaire for assessing cognitive impairment and dementia. The physiological and psychological assessments were administered by an interdisciplinary research team of nursing, leisure services, and gerontology faculty and students, who were trained in the appropriate procedures associated with each assessment. The research procedures were piloted during previous Huntsman World Senior Games events (1993-1997). Each phase of pilot research provided important critiques and modifications of the assessment process.
An additional questionnaire representing almost 200 participants in the 1997 Huntsman World Senior Games (HWSG) provided self-report information about their involvement with the games. HWSG senior athletes wrote about overcoming major physical handicaps to participate. Some wrote about benefits of friendships developed during the games. Others wrote about medical screenings that saved their lives and caught potentially dangerous medical problems early enough to be treated on a timely basis. This self-report information augmented the health benefits-based assessments that were physiological and psychological in nature.
The Participants
A total of 220 volunteers qualified for inclusion in the health benefits-based research study by virtue of their having at least three hours of active physical involvement per week on a regular basis and being 50 to 90 years of age. There were 142 males and 78 females with 8 to 21 years of formal education.
The Results
In order to make comparisons of the data from this physically active sample with some normative data from a large epidemiological study of dementia completed by Tombaugh, McDowell, Kristjansson, and Hubley (1996), subjects were divided into eight age ranges (50-54, 55-59, 50-64, 65-69, 70-74, 75-79, 80-84, and 85-90). They were also sorted into three groups according to years of education (0-8, 9-12, and 12 or more). Additionally, they were sorted into groups of gender. These data are summarized in Table 1, which shows the MMMSE mean scores by age group, years of education, and gender as reported by Tombaugh, et al (1996) for the normative group, and the parallel scores obtained from physically active participants in the present study.
Mean Scores on the Modified Mini-Mental Status Examination by Age, Education Level, and Gender for the Normative Group and the Physically Active Seniors | |||||
| Physically Active Seniors | | ||||
| N = 220 | | ||||
| Mean | Mean | | |||
| N/A | 95.1 | | |||
| N/A | 94.1 | | |||
| N/A | 94.1 | | |||
| 81.3 | 92.8 | | |||
| 87.8 | 89.8 | | |||
| 87.5 | 90.6 | | |||
| 84.3 | 90.3 | | |||
| 80.7 | 87.0 | | |||
| 79.1 | 94.0 | | |||
| 86.2 | 92.4 | | |||
| 90.1 | 93.5 | | |||
| 83.7 | 93.2 | | |||
| 85.9 | 93.1 | | |||
On the normative data in Table 1, Tombaugh, et al. (1996) indicated that neither age nor gender contributed a significant portion of the variance in MMMSE scores beyond what was accounted for by education. However, years of education indicated a significant positive correlation with MMMSE scores. A three-factor ANOVA of the Senior Athlete Data in Table 1 is presented in Table 2.
ANOVA of the Relationship of Age, Gender and Education to MMMSE Scores | |||||
| df | Sum of Squares | Mean of Squares | F-Value | P-Value | |
| 29 | 945.163 | 32.592 | .759 | .7913 | |
| 1 | 14.575 | 14.575 | .339 | .5623 | |
| 13 | 286.877 | 22.067 | .514 | .9079 | |
| 17 | 273.439 | 16.085 | .374 | .9864 | |
| 73 | 1593.859 | 21.834 | .508 | .9972 | |
| 4 | 90.909 | 22.727 | .529 | .7148 | |
| 11 | 128.472 | 11.679 | .272 | .9890 | |
| 63 | 2706.700 | 42.963 | N/A | N/A | |
These results indicate no significant contribution to MMMSE scores by age, education or gender, thereby differentiating these senior athletes from the normative group in the elimination of education level as a contributor to cognitive functioning.
The Discussion
The Senior Athletes evidence an advantage in cognitive functioning over the Normative Sample for all ages samples, for each Education Level and for both Genders. This advantage is best understood to be a consequence of a physically active life-style. Even though the amount of physical activity required in this study for classification as a Senior Athlete (at least one hour, three times per week) is not excessive, the health benefit-based assessment in terms of cognitive functioning is substantial. In fact, it appears to be the case that dementia that has been thought to be a natural accompaniment of aging, is not evident among those who are physically active. For this group of senior athletes, none of the other independent variables ( gender, age, and years of education) identified by Tombaugh, McDowell, Kristjansson, and Hubley (1996) are determinants of cognitive functioning. In this study, physical activity is the only important variable that influences cognitive functioning that often declines with advanced aging. Physical activity seems to improve cognitive functioning in addition to the self-reported health benefits of Òa chance for exerciseÓ and Òstress reductionÓ among older adults (Godbey, 1992).
The References
- AARP Andrus Foundation www.andrus.org
- Covey, L.A. and Feltz, D.L. (1991) Physical Activity and Adolescent Female Psychological Development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20 (4) 183-196.
- Driver, B.L., Brown, P. and Peterson, G (1991) The Benefits of Leisure. State College: Venture Publishing.
- Gleser, J. and Medelberg, H. (1990) Exercise and Sport in Mental Health: A Review of the Literature, Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 27 (2), 99-112.
- Godbey, G., Graefe, A. and James, S. (1992) The Benefits of Local Recreation and Park Services: A Nationwide Study of the Perceptions of the American Public. Ashburn, VA:NRPA.
- Harper, J., Neider, D., Godbey, G. and Lamont, D. (1996) the Use and Benefits of Local Government Recreation and Park Services in Edmonton, Alberta. Winnipeg: Health, Leisure and Human Performance Institute, University of Manitoba.
- Healthy People 2000 Statement (1990) U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Washington, D.C.:Federal Document
- Huntsman World Senior Games (HWSG) (1997) Tell Your Story. St George:Huntsman World Senior Games Publication
- National Institute of Aging www.nih.gov/nia
- Nesse, R. and Williams, G. (1996) Why we get Sick- The New Science of Darwinian Medicine. New York: Vintage Books.
- Payne, L., Orsega-Smith, B., Godbey, G. and Roy, M (1998) Local Parks and Health of Older Adults: Results of an Exploratory Study, Parks and Recreation. Ashburn,VA:NRPA
- Stimpson, D.V., Heiner, S.W. and Gray, H.R. (1993) Self-Esteem as a Function of Exercise, Age, and Gender. The Journal of Recreation and Leisure. 13 (1) 36-42.
- Tombaugh, T.M., McDowell, I. Kristjansson, B. and Hubley, A.M. (1996) Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE and the Modified-MMSE (MMMS): A Psychometric Comparison and Normative Data Psychological Assessment 8 (1), 48-59.
Stephen Robinson
Accepted: September, 2004
Key words: Native Americans, gambling, recreation, hunting, Indian reservation, natural resources The largest and fastest growing segment of the entertainment industry is legal gambling. In terms of sales, legal gambling dwarfs every other form of entertainment. For example, in 1994 gambling profits in the U.S. equaled $39.9 billion dollars. More was spent on gambling in 1994 than on all live entertainment events including concerts and plays, all movie theaters, all spectator sports, and all forms of recorded music combined (Christianson and Cummings, 1995).
Of the newer forms of legal gaming, Native American gaming is the most widespread geographically. In 1982 there were only six gaming sites on Native American reservations, but by 1996 the number of tribal gaming sites on reservations had grown to an estimated 200 (Hines, 1996). Gambling on Native American reservations has become the centerpiece of many tribal economies and is estimated to have generated revenues of about $7 billion in 1996. The growth in gambling on Native American lands has gone from literally zero to over $7 billion per year in wagers in just over a decade (Egan, 1997).
Estimates vary as to the amount of total revenues flowing to the tribes from reservation gambling. However, it is clear that Native American gaming is the fastest growing source of economic activity on the reservation. This economic success has not come without some significant negative tradeoffs for tribes pursuing such ventures. Seven major political and social realities point to the difficulty some tribes will face in attempting to sustain long-term economic stability based primarily on gambling.
1. States collect limited or no taxes from Native American gambling
Currently states have relatively little jurisdiction over the operations of reservation gambling and garner limited or no direct taxes. As a result, states have aggressively challenged tribesÕ rights to continue to make billions of dollars from reservation gambling that is not taxable by the state governments.
In the early days of reservation gambling under the 1988 Native American Gaming Regulatory Act, courts were willing to draw broad categories interpreting the language of the compacts the tribes signed with the state governments allowing gambling on reservation lands (Rose, 1995). As publicity about successful Native American casinos spread, the courts tightened their reasoning. California's 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that tribes in California can have only those exactly same games that are permitted by California state law (Rose, 1995). In 1998, federal prosecutors filed a civil forfeiture suit to close video slot machines on reservations in California (Ruling Strikes Indian Gambling, 1998). Lieberman (1991) sees Native American gambling as a window of opportunity which will be closed once politicians and the public realize that revenues from casinos on Native American reservations are not fully taxed. It seems likely that states will continue pursuing taxable revenues from reservation gambling while the federal courts tighten the definition of what constitutes legal gambling.
2. Demand is not infinitely elastic
There is no question that legal gambling can generate revenue. But in the face of direct competition, revenues will neither be on the scale imagined nor be as reliable as many proponents of legalized gambling think. The idea that there is an endless supply of money available and an infinitely elastic demand for gambling is attractive to politicians as well as entrepreneurs. Seeing the economic revenues generated from gambling, including the success experienced by Native American tribes, many states and municipalities have legalized forms of gambling.
The real growth in gambling is posed to take place in the form of multibillion-dollar casino resorts such as those already proposed in Chicago, Connecticut, and Detroit. For example, Mayor Richard Daly of Chicago has embraced the idea of developing near downtown Chicago a $2 billion "family entertainment center" to be anchored by at least four gambling casinos. Once these urban gambling centers are in place, the lure of gambling at remote Native American reservations will likely decrease, leaving excess capacity, falling revenues, and wasted capital investments. The underlining rationale for such a decline rests in the reality that only a limited number of people would trek to a remote reservation if they could find the same gambling in their city. Eadington, (1996) points out, Òthe only true injections gaming can bring to a local or regional economy occur when the gaming is exported to outsiders.Ó If most of the customer base is from the local market there will be little net economic gain. This may be especially true for reservation gambling where Eadington speculates "the window of opportunity may be available for Native Americans for a fairly short period of time before other interests overwhelm them" (Yoshihashi, 1991).
3. Illusion of endless demand
As the supply of legal gambling venues has grown, so to has demand for gambling. With continued growth the gambling market in time will reach a saturation point (U.S. Cogress, 1994). To date legal gambling has generated sizable revenue, however, the scale of future profit in many locations may be much more limited in the face of growing competition.
The Mashantucket Pequot tribe owns and operates the Foxwoods High Stakes Bingo & Casino in Connecticut. Opening in February 1992, the tribe began operating the only legal slot machines between Atlantic City and Canada. The initial 260 machines produced slightly over $2 million during the first month in operation. By September of 1993, the tribe had 3,137 slot machines generating $1.625 million in profit per day (Diamond, 1993). But there is certainly a big difference between being the only legal casino with slot machines in the Northeast United States and being a Native American casino in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan that is limited to $5 bets while trying to compete with a casino with unlimited stakes in Windsor, Ontario, Canada. Many Native American reservations may suffer the fate of losing business to larger operators that offer more gambling opportunities, in locations more accessible to the customer base. Smith and Hinch (1996) suggest that gambling opportunities may soon outgrow demand which will force market adjustments. They believe Òa hierarchy of casinos is likely to emerge, with only the most grandiose casinos functioning as major tourist attractions.Ó
4. Pauperization of the local population
One potentially disturbing development connected to the explosion of casino gambling is that many of these new casinos appear to draw mainly local customers (U.S. Congress, 1994). With tourists for customers, it does not really matter that many players go broke, a mathematical certainty known as "gambler's ruin.Ó When gambling is supporter by mainly local patrons profits are drawn away from other local businesses creating no real economic development. Throughout history, localities that have allowed casinos to cater to resident based customers have eventually outlawed gambling. The casino at Monte Carlo is in its present location because it pauperized citizens in the town of Hamburg, Germany and was forced to leave the country (Scarne, 1961). In Puerto Rico, it is against the law for local licensed casinos to advertise to the local population.
With growing competition Native American-owned casinos at remote reservation locations will be forced to draw most of their revenue from small local populations and the reservation resident population. This diversion of dollars from elsewhere in the local economy will have substantial economic and social ramifications (Goodman, 1994).
5. Gambling and crime
Many types of gambling have historically been accompanied by increases in violent and property crimes, alcoholism, and drug abuse. Yet there has been surprisingly little attention paid to the possible negative impact from gambling on Native American culture (Segal, 1992). Both Atlantic City and Las Vegas have higher rates of crime than the U.S. metropolitan average (Casey, 1991). When the additional tourists are taken into account, the rate of increase in crime in Atlantic City accelerated 150% (from a 5.4% to a 13.6% increase per year) after legalized gambling opened in 1978. The New Jersey Casino Control Commission has acknowledged that casino gambling has resulted in an increase in street crime (California Governor's Office of Planning and Research, 1992). Even in rural locations gambling may increase crime rate. Stokowski (1996) suggests the hypothesizes that gaming communities of all sizes are likely to see increases in certain types of crime, including personal property, aggressive behavior, banned substances and money related violations, over time.
Crime will follow money, and crime increases with income. But if interpreted too literally, this statement might seem to impugn all economic development. That crime increases with income is true, but the rate of increase depends on the way income is being created. A cash-intensive industry such as gambling attracts more crime than a capital-intensive one such as heavy manufacturing (California Governor's Office of Planning and Research, 1992).
In those states where the legalization of casino gambling has been promoted to increase revenues organized crime has been an issue, both in political debate and in the public campaigns surrounding specific ballot measures (Rose, 1996). No other single issue, poses as many problems for the continued legitimization of casino gambling as does the question of associated crime.
6. Location of Native American casinos
Reservations are often located in remote locations making the attracting of customers to reservation-based casinos problematic. Tribes had hoped that with the Native American Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, they would be able to acquire land near cities to establish more profitable casinos. Tribes can now buy new non-contiguous "after-acquired land" (acquired after the enactment of the Native American Gaming Regulatory Act). However, the legal and political reality of the federal law is that non-contiguous "after-acquired land" cannot be used for gambling without the approval of the governor of the state. Since many states have made it clear that they are against any expansion of Native American gambling, Native American casinos will likely not be expanding into major U.S. cities.
7. Employment gains are an illusion
The most salient argument in favor of reservation gambling is economic development through job growth. Nationwide the unemployment rate on reservations averages 40%. The promise of jobs is often a major incentive to tribes considering gambling. However, there is somewhat of an illusion when looking at employment gains from gambling. Most gambling-related employment is in service jobs at the lower end of the wage scale (U.S. Congress, 1994).
Las Vegas scale casinos will not ease local unemployment. They need to be located near or to have easy access to major population centers; most reservations, however, are in the hinterlands. As an example, the tiny Kickapoo nation located near Horton, Kansas, has attempted to negotiate a partnership with the Mirage Hotel and Casino. Although the tribe has offered to donate 70 acres of reservation land to build the casino, the Mirage has made it clear that the reservationÕs location is too far away (one and a half hours) from Kansas City (Segal, 1992). Even in some rural communities where casinos do operate economic benefit to the local population has been minimal. Gabe et. al. (1996) found that on rural reservations in Minnesota tribal casinos did not significantly increase local per capita personal income. When employment gains do occur, they will most likely be lost if/when the reservation casinos close, because most casino skills are not transferable to other forms of work (Halmstrom, 1992).
The future of gambling?
The problems listed above do not offset the simple fact that to date reservation gambling has proved profitable for most tribes. The intention of Congress in passing the 1988 Native American Gaming Regulatory Act was that reservation gambling would help to alleviate the dire economic conditions on the reservations. Congress never anticipated many of the subsequent problems that this new revenue source would bring.
Currently some tribes cannot absorb all the gambling revenues flowing into their underdeveloped reservation economies because of the existing low levels of infrastructure development. It would seem prudent for these fortunate tribes to be setting aside the windfall profits for the potential economic down-turn that may come once the saturation point is reached and gambling revenue is divided into smaller and smaller shares.
What will the world look like in ten years? It is possible that every major population center of the United States and Canada may soon have a casino-style resort within a two-hour drive (Rose, 1996). More casinos will create more customers, but at some point, perhaps relatively soon, the operators simply will be fighting for the same market.
The history of legal gambling in the United States follows a defined pattern of boom and bust that tends to repeat in seventy-year cycles (Rose, 1996). As Rose (1996) points out Òtwice before in American history, gamblers could make legal bets in almost every state, but these waves of legal gambling came crashing down in scandal and ruinÓ. The outcome of this third wave of gambling would seem to be following the historical pattern. It is just the timing of the waveÕs events that is sketchy. The short to intermediate term prediction, now through the next few decades is easy; more gambling and more changes in the laws. But in the long term, 30-40 years out, curtailment of legalized gambling seems likely as the general population says, "This is too much." People will eventually rebel against the state having the image of a bookie and legal gambling destroying the work ethic (Rose, 1996).
Native American gambling is more difficult since the tribes are so dependent on it for revenue. But if gambling is once again seen as morally repugnant, the federal government will step in. For example, the Bureau of Indian Affairs prevented Nevada's Moapa Band of Paiute Indians from opening brothels, even though prostitution is legal in that state (Rose, 1996).
The projected growth in competition due to more mainstream acceptance and development of gambling opportunities in communities across the country may well result in the collapse of some reservation gambling economies. Without money flowing onto reservations from tourist gamblers, the potential for long-term economic development, job creation, and improved quality of life for reservation residents then becomes an illusion. This fact is not lost on Native Americans. Tony Hope, the former chairman of the National Native American Gaming Commission acknowledges the limitations of reservation gambling: ÒThere are plenty of arguments that can be made that gambling is not the right way to do this (economic development). There is one really basic fact, however; right now itÕs the only way. When someone comes up with a substitute, weÕll grab itÓ (Lieberman, 1991).
Natural resource recreation opportunities
In the long run, for some tribes, the costs associated with casino gambling (economic, social, and cultural) may far exceed any short-term benefits. This seems especially true for western tribes, where the location of reservations is frequently far removed from urban centers. The point in question then becomes one of what economic alternatives tribes have to casino gambling. One option would seem to lie in the vast amount of natural resources controlled by tribes on reservation lands. As Hostetler and Huntington (1967) point out that:
natural resource development offers an entirely new range of possibilities in Native American adjustment to the enclave condition...(providing) for the development of sustainable, stable and well-integrated culturally distinct enclaves that can become economically viable within the context of the larger society.
Approximately 54.4 million acres, or approximately 90,000 square miles of land (about the size of South Carolina and Georgia combined), are owned by Native American tribes in the United States. Of that total, nearly 75 percent of the land is used for agriculture and ranching. Another 15 percent is managed as forest products land. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1993, there were in excess of 1.1 million acres of Native American agricultural lands lying idle. Thirty-three thousand individual and tribal agricultural enterprises were in operation in 1993, making such ventures a major source of economic opportunity for many Native American people. However, in recent years there has been a major decline in profitability of agricultural businesses on reservations (U.S. Congress, 1993).
Resource extraction has also provided economic incentives to some tribes. Reservation lands became a focus for oil and gas exploration after the 1973 oil embargo. Through the 1970s, gross revenues from growing natural resourcesÕ production significantly increased for many tribes. However, with the fall of prices for oil, gas, timber, and other natural resources during the 1980s, so too, have fallen tribal profits (Stull, 1990). The Task Force for Native American Economic Development (1986) reported that only 14% of Native Americans who live on reservations receive revenues from consumptive uses of tribal natural resources equal to $500 or more annually. Consequently, the use of tribal natural resources solely in a consumptive manner would not seem to provide an economic alternative to reservation gambling.
Another way of looking at natural resource potential on reservation land would be through the opportunity to develop more sustainable uses of the resources. Primarily these types of opportunity would be associated with the recreational potential of the reservationÕs natural resources. Participation in natural resource-based recreation has steadily grown in the U.S. over the past 40 years. Activities such as day hiking, wildlife observation, sightseeing, and backpacking are projected to continue growing, in terms of demand for opportunity, well into the next century. For instance, by the year 2040, there is a projected 44% gap (deficit in opportunities for participation) between the demand for wildlife observation opportunities and the supply of such opportunities available to meet that demand. Other natural resource-based activities that are projected to have a short fall in supply by the year 2040 include primitive camping (30% gap), backpacking (57% gap), nature study (30% gap), day hiking (64% gap), and horseback riding (41% gap) (English, Betz, Young, Bergstrom, and Cordell, 1993).
Native American tribes on more than 100 reservations currently offer some form of natural resource-based recreation opportunities that are open to public access, usually on a fee basis (Bureau of Indian Affairs, 1991). Some tribes like the Eastern Band of the Cherokee, located in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, have developed their recreational opportunities. Tourism revenue for the Cherokee tribe was approximately $60 million in 1990. Similarly, the Warm Springs Confederation has found profitability in the operation of an upscale vacation resort on its central Oregon reservation, while the White Mountain Apaches have diversified their economic base by developing a ski resort on their northern Arizona reservation (Woods, 1993).
Most tribes have not experienced this type of success using their recreational resources. The majority of Native American reservations are located in the plains and western states and in Alaska where travel distance to the reservation and lack of public knowledge about natural resource-based recreation opportunities have limited the economic gains received by the tribes who offer recreation opportunities to non-tribal members. In addition, some tribes are culturally opposed to developing reservation resources to cater to what they feel is western societyÕs somewhat alien concept of recreation and leisure (McDonald and McAvoy, 1997). However, for those tribes that so choose to expand the reservationÕs economic base by using natural resource-based recreation, the future would seem promising.
The growing demand for outdoor recreation in the U.S., coupled with the projected static supply of natural resource areas, provides an opportunity for Native American tribes to actively promote and, where necessary, develop the facilities to accommodate public outdoor recreation for a fee.
For many tribes the potential for economic growth through development of natural resource-based recreation opportunities would seem promising. As the data in Table 1 suggests, many tribes already allow some forms of natural resource-based recreation by non-tribal members on reservation lands. In most cases, a fee is charged for recreational use by non-tribal members.
Hunting and fishing opportunities are a major component of recreation-for-fee activities for many tribes. The potential for economic contribution from such activities to overall reservation economies has been recognized by Native American tribal leadership. In an effort to improve professional reservation management of fish and wildlife resources, the Native American Fish and Wildlife Society created in 1995 the Native American Fish and Wildlife Foundation. The mission of the Foundation is:
(1) To perpetuate and assist in the advancement of protection, preservation, and enhancement of Native American fish and wildlife resources;
(2) To provide independent funding to promote and strengthen tribal natural resource management programs, and
(3) To encourage and support training and educational opportunities for tribal and other entities in the area of fish and wildlife management.
Recreational hunting
Recognition by tribes of the importance of well-managed natural resources sets the foundation for sustainable, long-term economic development based on the recreational use of such resources. As noted above, a number of tribes have already begun to utilize reservation fish and game resources as a basis for commercial recreation development. In many cases development is simply setting up a fee schedule for non-tribal licenses and then providing access to those recreators who purchase the licenses. Some tribes however, have recognized the economic potential of providing high-quality recreational experiences and have expended capital resources to develop the necessary resources and management programs to provide quality opportunities. Recreational hunting on reservations is an excellent example of such development. The Mescalero Apache and Lower Brule Sioux tribes have both developed recreational hunting programs on their reservations. Each approach is unique, but both serve as examples of tribes expanding their economic base through the use of natural resource-based recreation.
Mescalero Apache Tribe
The Mescalero Apache Tribe has made major investments in the development of natural resource-based recreational facilities and opportunities. The Mescalero Reservation, located on 460,000 acres in south central New Mexico, is home to approximately 3,300 tribal members. The reservationÕs topography varies from a high desert zone, elevation 5,500 feet, to a sub-alpine region, elevation 12,000 feet. The tribeÕs aggressive program of using its natural resources for recreation has resulted in the development of a first-class resort complex (Inn of the Mountain Gods). This 250 guest-room facility offers complete resort and convention facilities and a casino. In addition, the tribe has developed a wide array of recreational facilities and programs, including a downhill ski center (Ski Apache), eighteen-hole golf course, tennis complex, two full-facility recreation-trailer and motor-home campgrounds, a sportsmanÕs complex with a 148 acre lake for fishing, stables, trap and skeet range, and a big-game hunting program.
The big-game hunting program and, specifically, trophy elk hunting provide an excellent case study of what tribes can accomplish utilizing reservation natural resources. Starting in the late 1960s, the Mescalero Apache tribe began transplanting Rocky Mountain elk on reservation land. The native Merriam elk had become extinct in the early 1900s. The initial herd of 162 elk became a huntable population in the mid 1970s. The tribeÕs management goal was to provide a high quality hunting experience for trophy bull elk (bulls with five points or more on each antler) where hunter success would be high. By achieving this goal, tribal leaders believed that a premium price could be set for hunting reservation elk, resulting in maximum economic gain from the program.
Each season, wildlife managers set a limited number of permits that are sold to non-tribal hunters. Sustainability of the elk herd is critical in determining the number of permits that are sold in a given year. The cost of the permits is set to maximize the dollar return to the tribe. For example, in 1995 sixty-five permits were available for non-tribal members who wished to hunt bull elk on reservation land. Forty of the permits had to be purchased as a package. The package included five days of hunting with a guide, six nights lodging, the use of horses during the hunt, two meals a day, and processing if an elk was taken. Cost for a package hunt was $8,700.
The program has resulted in a yearly hunter success rate of 97%, with many of the elk taken rating Boone and Crocket listings. The programÕs success is best illustrated in that, due to demand, in most years a lottery is used to allocate permits. In addition, the tribeÕs big game program offers deer, antelope, bear, turkey, and cow elk hunting opportunities for non-tribal members. Such quality trophy hunting experience and high likelihood of success have resulted in high demand for access to Mescalero Apache reservation hunting.
Lower Brule Sioux Tribe
The Lower Brule Sioux Tribe reservation is located on 132,601 acres in central South Dakota. The reservationÕs topography primarily comprises rolling hills of prairie grassland. Eighty miles of the reservation border the Missouri River along the shoreline of Lake Sharpe. Extensive areas of the reservation are in agricultural production, primarily field crops and grazing. The tribe operates a small casino and a thirty-eight room motel.
The Lower Brule Wildlife Department has pursued an aggressive program of wildlife management aimed at developing sustainable populations of big game animals (elk, buffalo, mule and white-tail deer, and antelope) and upland game birds (pheasant, prairie chicken, and sharp tail grouse) for recreational hunting. In addition, the reservationÕs proximity to the Missouri River provides excellent waterfowl hunting during fall migration.
The tribe has developed, from transplants, both buffalo and elk herds. The herds are surrounded by a 3000-acre fenced enclosure and are managed for trophy high-success hunting. Since 1985 the tribe has offered trophy hunting packages to non-tribal members. During 1996 non-tribal members paid up to $4000 for a three-day, package which included license, guide, and field dressing of the kill, All elk and buffalo hunting is done within the wildlife enclosure, which ensures a very high success rate for participating hunters. The tribe has a written guarantee to hunters participating in these packages, ÒGuarantee: You will see trophy animals within rifle range. ItÕs up to you to hit them.Ó In addition a variety of deer and antelope permits are also available to non-tribal members for reservation hunting.
The Lower Brule Wildlife Department has also focused efforts on upland game-bird management and migratory waterfowl hunting opportunities. The tribe has developed two special goose hunting Òcamps,Ó the 2,500-acre Min-Sho Ranch and the 500 acre Iron Nation Camp. In 1995 the Medicine Creek wetland was created to provide opportunities for quality duck hunting. For upland gamebirds the tribe operates the Grassrope unit, a 7,000 acre crop area that is managed for wild-game bird production. Access to these areas is by fee based permits. Beyond these intensely managed areas, much of the rest of the reservation is open to non-tribal hunting for upland game birds and waterfowl.
Conclusion
Both of the previous examples illustrate how some tribes have utilized their natural resources as a sustainable economic development tool. In both cases the tribe has placed emphasis on quality of the experience as opposed to number of participants. The high cost associated with acquiring the experience does not appear to be a deterrent to demand, considering that the limited number of annual permits are normally all sold, in some cases requiring a lottery due to demand. For many tribes, revenues from natural resource recreation activities such as those described here would not compare with revenues currently being generated from casino gambling. However, the future of gambling revenues is not certain for many tribes. By diverting current profits from gambling into the development and promotion of long-term, more sustainable natural resource-based recreation opportunities, tribes could potentially offset the negative consequences of lost revenue from casino gambling. For many tribes, gambling could then become the conduit to move above such loss, a means to invest in more stable long-term business ventures. Even for tribes where the logistics of the reservation location makes economic sense to continue gambling, diversification of the tribal economic base through avenues such as recreation would be beneficial (Robinson and Hogan, 1994). As Eadington (1984) points out, reservations that offer only gambling are burdened with social stigma. However, if they were to develop their recreational potential and combine recreational activities with gambling, their chances for long-run sustainable development would greatly be enhanced. The projections for economic growth in Las Vegas and Atlantic City support this idea. By the turn of the century, Atlantic City, where gambling will continue to be the primary economic focus, may see its market reduced by the opening of closer casinos. Las Vegas, on the other hand, by developing and promoting a wide range of recreational opportunities, will become a major family-oriented vacation destination. The end result, Las Vegas will be known as a recreation resort center that happens to have gambling, while Atlantic City will continue to be two blocks of casinos built around slums on the Atlantic Ocean (Rose, 1996). Consequently, for many tribes, they must begin planning for life after gambling where natural resource-based recreation may prove to be an sustainable economic alternative.
References
A. J. Haley
Tim Snaith
The purpose of this companion study is to expand and complete an earlier
comparative, baseline study of municipal recreation land in the United States that appeared in this journal (Haley & Snaith, 1996) last year. This documentation will be effected by application of the traditional and benchmark recreation land percentage (10%) standard to the study's 152 constituent and paired central cities and suburbs. As recently noted by Ammons (1996) in attempting
To determine whether a municipality's performance is favorable or
unfavorable, it is necessary to compare that jurisdiction's performance marks against some relevant peg. Among city governments that monitor their own performance, many compare current performance with figures for the same measures in previous reporting periods. Some compare the performance measures of different units in the same jurisdiction providing similar services or compare performance records with predetermined targets. Until recently, relatively few have used national or state standards, private sector performance, or the performance records of other jurisdictions as benchmarks for gauging their own jurisdiction's performance (Hatry, 1980).
It is precisely the application of the recreation land percentage standard
that allows for the forming of a quantitative base from which a central city-suburban longitudinal comparison can be accomplished.
Ever since the formation of the Playground Association of America (P.A.A.),
municipal recreation and park professionals in the United States have been concerned with the concept of standards. At its formation ninety years ago the P.A.A. adopted the following resolution:
That while there is no inherent relation between space and children, and the
exact amount of space required cannot be determined, it is our belief that the present London requirement of 30 square feet of playground for each child of the school is the minimum with which the proper amount of light, air and space for play and gymnastics can be secured (Gold, 1973:2).
As noted in the National Recreation and Park Association's (N.R.P.A.) 1983
publication entitled, Recreation, Park and Open Space Standards and Guidelines, early work by the P.A.A. for the metropolitan area of Washington, D.C., also led to the development of the standard of at least one acre of playground for each 2,000 students in a school district. In this same publication the NRPA further notes that during the 1930's, relative to further standards development, the National Recreation Association (N.R.A.) conducted the first large, 5,000 respondents, recreation preference survey in the United States.
The N.R.A.'s interest in standards development was further evinced by its
nationwide publication and promulgation of George Butlers's standard of 10 acres of park and open space per 1,000 urban population in the 1940's and 50's. Since then five major, national-level meetings/studies on the part of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (O.R.R.R.C.), the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (B.O.R.) and the N.R.P.A. have provided endorsements of Butlers's standard, the presently utilized 10 percent of area standard, and a wide variety of other standards generally categorized as Nequality techniquesO. These techniques are based on the belief that local recreation services should be equally provided to all residents.
It has been noted (Van Doren, et al., 1983:56) that:
Standards - commonly based upon population density - provide the basic
measure for the equality technique to determine local recreation needs. No general provision is made in any space or facility standard for adapting practice or priority because of presence or absence of any other factor included in a broad community survey. The primary virtue of this tradition appears to be that the equal distribution of recreation resources based on the distribution of population is easy to compute and, more appealingly, easy to interpret, defend, and sell. Historically, when local needs were locally determined and responded to by mobilizing local resources via the public purse, these last-mentioned attributes were of enormous consequence. They should not be understated today.
The 10% standard is utilized in this study for both the reasons stated
above, and the fact that it is one of the few quantitative measures in recreation which can be related to the past, present, and future.
By collecting follow-up data for 1970 and 1985 on the originally paired
central cities and suburbs, this article partially redresses the overriding lack of municipal recreation research by contributing to the development of a special theory applicable to a limited conceptual range - the central city/suburban municipal recreation relationship. Such theory attempts, Nto consolidate, not fragment, empirical findingsO (Merton, 1968:65). As a theory of the middle-range this descriptive research endeavors to specify and delimit municipal recreation within the context of the interrelationship of central cities and suburbs. As such, it is in agreement with Robert Nisbet's statement, Nthat what is primary..is what's out thereO (Cosner, 1975:9).
Due to the difficulty involved in obtaining municipal recreation
administration data on a nationwide basis researchers have not attempted to document the relationship between central city and suburban municipal recreation administration. Several researchers have suggested certain central city-suburban municipal recreation relationships. Some (Whyte, 1956; Gottman, 1961; Gans, 1967; Sobin,1971) suggested that the distribution of municipal recreation opportunities was skewed toward the central cities. These observations on the central city-suburban municipal recreation relationship were mere conjecture, and not based upon any quantitative treatment of available municipal recreation data.
Some of the reasons for such an omission are: a lack of reliable municipal
recreation baseline data, lack of adequate research sponsorship, fragmented and isolated research efforts, lack of tradition, and the dominance of the profession by outdoor recreation monies, interests and researchers. Indeed, municipal recreation literature has virtually ignored the entire suburban scene, although the arrival of the suburban era in the United States has been statistically confirmed and accepted as a given by urban researchers. In 1960 the total number of suburbanites was approximately 50 million; by 1965 it was more than 60 million; and by 1970 the number was 75.6 million. Of the total U.S. population in 1975, 29.2 percent lived inside the central cities, while 39.9 percent lived in suburban areas. In the five year period from 1970 to 1975 the suburbs residential population grew by 9.3 percent and, for the first time in the history of the world, a nation-state counted more suburbanites than city dwellers or farmers (Jackson, 1985). This explosive suburban growth makes it all the more important that the suburban municipal recreation land situation be longitudinally investigated and documented.
Original design of the study - 1965 data
In order to obtain the necessary data for the 1965 segment of the original
comparative study, the Recreation and Park Yearbook ( National Recreation and Park Association, 1967), The Municipal Year Book (International City Management Association, 1963-67), and The County and City Data Book, 1967 (Bureau of the Census) were utilized.
The Bureau of the Census identified 224 Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Areas (S.M.S.A.'s) in the United States as of December 31, 1965. Thus the original investigative boundaries of this study were set at an assessment of the largest central city and one of its selected contiguous suburbs in each of the 224 S.M.S.A.'s in the United States. If the largest central city had incomplete municipal recreation data, then the next largest central city within the S.M.S.A. was chosen. This process was continued until an appropriately qualified central city was found or the entire number of designated central cities within the S.M.S.A. was exhausted.
A complete investigation of these 224 S.M.S.A.'s revealed there were 106
central cities that had reported municipal recreation administration data in the Recreation and Park Yearbook, the remaining 118 S.M.S.A.'s were rejected because of a lack of such data. Further investigation showed, however, that twenty of these 106 central cities had incomplete data on municipal recreation operating expenditures. Thus, they too were rejected for consideration.
This left eighty-six central cities available for investigation. This
number was further reduced when the random selection of the suburb to be include with each central city was determined. By examining the 897 suburbs listed in the NFunctional Classification of CitiesO of the Municipal Year Book, 1966, ten additional central cities were deleted since there was no suburb within their respective S.M.S.A.'s with the data necessary to develop figures for the three standardized categories. Consequently, there remained seventy-six paired central cities and suburbs with the complete municipal recreation information needed to form the original base and parameters for this longitudinal investigation.
1970 and 1985 Data
Each of the originally selected central cities and suburbs was personally
contacted and inventoried by the authors for the 1970 and 1985 municipal recreation data. In gathering this data, a hundred percent follow-up response was accomplished over a period of more than three years in order to continue the on-going provision of a historical and substantive descriptive rendering of the central city and suburban municipal recreation situation during the most intense period of suburbanization in the history of the United States.
All of the collected data came directly from the major municipal recreation
agencies in each of the 152 studied municipalities. These agencies provided data reflective of their operations, and also contributed to the study by identifying other local agencies that were delivering significant municipal recreation services. Municipal recreation land information was acquired on the total recreation and park acreage under the direct domain of the reporting municipal recreation administrative unit (school recreation acreage, open spaces, green belts, parkways, etc, when appropriate, were included).
Listed in Table 1 are the investigated central cities and suburbs. A
central city is the largest city of an S.M.S.A. which give the S.M.S.A. its name, while a suburb is Nan incorporated residential area outside the existing political boundaries of the central cityO (Gold, 1973). There is a total of seventy-six pairings, each representing a separate S.M.S.A.. The pairings are presented by state in alphabetical order. In each paring the central city appears first. TABLE 1
PAIRED CENTRAL CITIES AND SUBURBS
Municipal recreation land 1970
The seventy-six central cities averaged 6.4 percent of their municipal
recreation land in recreation; the seventy-six suburbs 3.1 percent. Fifteen central cities (Table 2) attained the traditional land standard of 10 percent. Only three suburbs (Table 3) attained this standard.
In 1985, the seventy-six central cities averaged 6.7 percent of their municipal land
in recreation; the seventy-six suburbs averaged 4.4 percent. Fifteen central
cities (Table 2) attained the traditional land standard of 10 percent. Eight
suburbs (Table 3) attained this standard.
Summary
Percent of land in recreation
In sum, this study has documented real growth in the municipal recreation
land situation between 1970 and 1985. As delineated in Tables 2 and 3, between 1970 and 1985 the central cities' allocative advantage over the suburbs in the category of percentage of total municipal land in recreation holdings was narrowed. Over these fifteen years the central cities' percentage of total land in municipal recreation increased from 6.4 to 6.7 percent, while the suburban level increased from 3.1 to 4.4 percent. Consequently, the overall municipalities' average rose from 4.8 to 5.5 percent of land in municipal recreation holdings.
In 1970 15.8 percent of the central cities, averaging 14.2 percent, attained
the standard of 10 percent of their total land in municipal recreation holdings; in 1985, once again, 15.8 percent of the central cities, averaging 15.8 percent, attained this standard. Only 3.9 percent of the suburbs in 1970, averaging 16.3 percent, attained the standard of having 10 percent of their total land in municipal recreation holdings; 10.1 percent of these suburbs in 1985, averaging 17 percent, attained this standard.
REFERENCES
An Empirical Study of Employment Selection Interview Preferences and Practices of Park and Recreation Administrators Craig M. Ross and Rodney J. Blackman Indiana University Contact: Dr. Craig M. Ross Associate Professor Indiana University Department of Recreation and Park Administration HPER Room 133 Bloomington, IN 47405 (812) 855-3102 Email: cmross@indiana.edu
Rodney J. Blackman Doctoral Research Assistant Indiana University Department of Recreation and Park Administration HPER Room 133 Bloomington, IN 47405 (812) 855-4711 Email: rblackma@indiana.edu
As career opportunities in park and recreation management become more competitive and
the job search process becomes more complex, the demands of job candidates will continue to
develop, intensify, and become more sophisticated. While often criticized, the employment
selection interview plays an integral role in the job search process and is by far the most widely
used method employers utilize when making hiring decisions. Over the years, there has been a considerable amount of popular literature written about
the interview process. However, such literature is largely circumstantial and not as precise as
empirical evidence. Unfortunately, little empirical research has been collected to identify the
preferences and practices of park and recreation administrators. This research was conducted to
provide entry level job candidates seeking jobs in this industry with specific data about the
selection interview process from administrators who hire new employees. A random sample of park and recreation administrators were asked qualitative and
quantitative questions about the preferences and practices that these administrators implement
during a selection interview. The survey instrument was divided into four sections including
before the interview, during the interview, after the interview, and administrator
recommendations. The results of the study clearly underscore the importance of the selection interview as
perceived by administrators. Key findings from the study included: the importance of
establishing a positive first impression; the need for interviewees to conduct preparatory research
about the agency; the role of interviewee impression management as displayed by positive verbal
and non-verbal communication skills; interviewee qualifications, experiences and abilities that
should be discussed during the interview; and suggestions for handling follow-up communication
and job offers. In addition, noteworthy detail aspects of the interview that are important such as
the best time to arrive for the interview, how and when to implement follow-up communication,
and the preferred dress of the interview are discussed. Strategies for interviewee preparation,
presentation, and professionalism are addressed in light of the empirical evidence presented in
this research. Based on the results of this study, the authors suggest future directions for research on the
employment selection interview including collecting data on interviewee perceptions of the
process, the effectiveness of the recruitment process and the role and impact of technology in the
interview process. An Empirical Study of Employment Selection Interview Preferences and Practices of Park and Recreation Administrators Previous research and related literature attest to the fact that the personnel selection
process is complicated and complex, but that it is a critical step toward the goal of employment
for future employees. The selection interview is one of the most widely used techniques in the
personnel selection process and is an "information-sharing, expectation-matching
communication event" (Jablin & McComb, 1984, p. 154). It allows both parties to achieve their
purposes and goals by asking questions which deal with specifics of the actual job (Stewart &
Cash, 1994). Eggert (1992) stated that the "single most important-and often determining factor-in
whether or not you get the job or promotion you want is the personnel interview" (p. i). Wells
and Spinks (1992) further stated that "job interviews remain vital parts of most employment
processes; therefore, prospective employees must perform well in interviews if they are to have
chances at better jobs" (p. 18). The employment of recreation personnel is one of the most important decisions that a
park and recreation agency must make. Because of this, the selection interview has maintained a
vital role in the hiring process. However, little attention has been given to the specifics of how
park and recreation entry level coordinators and recreation programmers are selected. Due to the
importance placed on the interview, candidates for positions in parks and recreation must be able
to successfully portray their communication skills, qualities and abilities during the interview
process. Key items in this success will depend on the candidate's appearance, demeanor and
presentation (Messmer, 1995). Unfortunately, "about 80 percent of all people who get
interviewed do not, according to employer surveys, do a good job in answering one or more
interview questions" (Farr, 1996, p. 391). For this reason, practical research in this area can
benefit individuals who are beginning the interview process. While the interview process is a very popular method that employers use when making
hiring decisions, some previous research had suggested that it may be the least valid and reliable
process for employee selection (Heneman, Schwab, Huett, & Ford, 1979; Reynolds, 1974;
Waldron, 1974). However, more recent research has provided ample evidence suggesting that
the employment interview is a valid and useful process (Foster & Godkin, 1998; Harris, 1989;
McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt, & Maurer, 1994; Wiesner & Cronshaw, 1988). Moreover, there is
a need for researchers to take into account the practicality of the interview process. "By
understanding how the different types of selection interviews are perceived by the people who
use them, researchers can study ways in which the reliability and validity of the interview can be
improved without sacrificing those qualities that make it attractive to users" (Latham &
Finnegan, 1993, p. 41). It seems inevitable that, despite criticism, employers will continue to use the selection
interview (Ralston & Kirkwood, 1995; Dipboye, 1992). Edenborough (1996) discussed the
popularity of the interview process and what he termed "strong assumption." The strong
assumption is "that in interviewing for selection, some form of conventional interview will
almost always take place, and be a central part of the selection process" (p. 28). There has been a considerable amount of popular literature written about the job search
process in the form of trade book publications. This literature often includes hints or suggestions
on how to write resumes and cover letters, as well as how to prepare for a job interview.
Unfortunately, most of this information is not in the form of empirical research with appropriate
citations, but rather is subjective and is the apparent opinions of the various authors. Many of
these publications advocate a wide range of advice regarding interviewing yet research
investigating the various components of the interview process is lacking. Gardner and Nixon
(1991) wrote that "as students face a rapidly changing economy in the 1990s, a systematic
understanding of the dynamics of the hiring process is needed, but does not exist" (p. 2).
Furthermore, Arvey and Campion (1982) stated: "There is a dearth of guidelines and suggestions concerning the improvement of interview
effectiveness based on research findings. Instead, many guidelines, suggestions, "how to
interview" workshops, and techniques are founded on intuition, beliefs, and what seems
more comfortable, rather than on research findings. There needs to be greater efforts
made to merge research with application in this domain" (p. 317). The presence of this type of practically oriented research is important in the sense that
researchers are looking at the needs of practitioners, and in this case, future practitioners
(McLean & Blackman, 1997). Empirical investigations which specifically address interviewing preferences and
practices of administrators in the leisure and recreation fields are sparse. The information in this
study can aid in facilitating a smooth and profitable interview experience for job candidates
specifically in the park and recreation management field. Additionally, the information in this
study can be used by educators for developing instructional recommendations in career and job
related courses. Purpose This study focused on park and recreation administrators' perceived preferences and
practices for interviewing entry level candidates. This research was conducted in an effort to
better understand the dynamics of the selection interview process in order to help interviewees
gain a grasp of the key components that they will need to be familiar with before, during, and
after the interview. In addition, selection factors that park and recreation administrators utilize
during the employment interview stage will be explored. The purpose of this study was to
identify the interviewing preferences and practices of park and recreation administrators for
college graduates applying for entry level professional positions in such programs. After a review of the related literature written on the interview process, a survey
instrument was developed to obtain information on the park and recreation administrators'
preferences for interviewing. The questionnaire consisted of 27 questions pertaining to the
interview process and was divided into four major sections: (a) before the interview, (b) during
the interview, (c) after the interview, and (d) administrator recommendations. In addition, six
demographic questions were asked (population size, NRPA region, position title, gender, age and
number of years full-time experience). Using a modified Salant and Dillman (1994) survey
process, the questionnaires, cover letters and return envelopes were mailed in the spring of 1998
to a random sample of 186 municipal park and recreation administrators in the United States. Of
the 186 questionnaires mailed, 12 questionnaires were returned as undeliverable. Of the
remaining 174 questionnaires, 78 questionnaires were completed and returned which resulted in a
45% response rate. Profile of the Respondents The majority (78.2%) of the questionnaires returned were completed by executive
directors or directors of municipal park and recreation departments. Approximately 71% of the
respondents were male, and over 80% were from municipalities with populations less than
100,000. Approximately 41% were from municipalities of less than 25,000 residents. Seventy-six
percent of the park and recreation administrators in this study had 13 or more years of full-time
experience with 38.5% having more than 21 years full-time experience. (See Table 1 for a
breakdown of the sample population demographics.) The interview process is characterized by a diversity of preferences and practices. This
study focused on the range of preferences and practices among park and recreation
administrators. The results of this study reflect a general disposition among that cross-sectional
segment of the leisure arena. In concert with the format of the questionnaire used in this study,
the results section of this paper is divided according to information about interviewer preferences
before, during, and after the interview, as well as administrator recommendations. Before the Interview Anticipating the initial expectations of the interviewer can aid in facilitating ease in the
preparation stage of the interview process. Thus, it is interesting to note that 85% of park and
recreation administrators in this study reported that the interviewee generally should make the
travel arrangements for their interview. Moreover, 80% of respondents indicated that the
municipal park and recreation agencies do not pay for all the travel expenses of the interviewee.
Additionally, over 70% of the respondents indicated that they prefer interviewees arrive 10 or 15
minutes before their scheduled interview time. Sixty-four percent of the respondents in this study indicated that interviewees should
dress nicer than expected if employed by the agency. More than 85% of respondents indicated
that interviewees should bring copies of information documenting their previous work
experiences. A detailed breakdown of the specific documents that respondents indicated
interviewees should bring to their interview can be seen in Table 2. Administrators in this study indicated the importance of background research and listed
several ways for prospective employees to gather information about the agencies they represent.
Sixty-two percent suggested that interviewees should contact the parks and recreation director
before coming or simply ask the parks and recreation agency for flyers, annual reports, program
brochures, or activity schedules. Forty-seven percent of the park and recreation administrators
also reported that informative materials could be supplied by the city chamber of commerce,
respective city government offices, newspapers, or the local library. Furthermore, 22% of
respondents reported that interviewees should search the Internet in order to collect useful
information about their agency. During the Interview While several different interview methods can be used, the two most popular methods
among the park and recreation administrators in this study proved to be person-to- person
interviews and group interviews. As can be seen in Table 3, an overwhelming majority of
respondents (92%) revealed that they conduct person-to-person interviews. In addition, 54% of
respondents also indicated that they use group interviews of entry level interviewees. Interestingly, 73% of respondents disagreed with the use of stress interviews, while 33%
listed various forms of stress questions as the most difficult questions they have asked during an
interview. In addition, 100% of respondents indicated it was at least somewhat important for
interviewees to share examples of their achievements or successes, while 90% indicated it was at
least somewhat important for interviewees to share some of their weaknesses. Moreover, 45%
reported questions about interviewee strengths and weaknesses among the most difficult
questions they have posed to interviewees. Figure 1 represents the top five questions asked by
interviewers, as well as the top five questions that interviewers have been asked by interviewees. Sixty-five percent of respondents reported that initial efforts to build rapport between the
interviewer and interviewee should be made by the interviewer. Respondents also ranked their
preferences regarding the importance of the qualifications, experiences, and abilities of
interviewees. Among the qualifications and experiences provided on the questionnaire,
professional experience, related work experience, and communication skills ranked one, two, and
three, respectively, while overseas work experience ranked least important (see Figure 2). Among
ranked preferences for interviewee abilities, only five one-hundredths of a percentage point
separated the top three most important abilities: initiative, leadership skills, and the ability to
work well with others. In addition, an interviewee's willingness to work overtime was ranked
least important (see Figure 3). Interestingly, willingness to work overtime was ranked as the top
ability in a similar study conducted by Ross and Blackman (1998) of collegiate recreational sport
administrators. Seventy-seven percent of administrators indicated that they prefer brief, descriptive
answers to their interview questions, while 17% reported a preference for long, thorough
answers. Additionally, 81% of respondents indicated it was at least somewhat important for
interviewees to inquire about opportunities for advancement within the agency. Ninety-nine
percent of administrators indicated that interviewees should ask about specific job duties.
Moreover, 55% of parks and recreation administrators reported that interviewees should initiate
discussion about compensation, benefits, and work schedule. Results regarding the preferred time
to discuss salary and other compensation issues can be seen in Table 4. After the Interview While nearly 30% of respondents reported that, if offered a position, interviewees should
accept the job on the spot, 65% reported that interviewees should ask for a deadline for making
their final decision. A substantial number of respondents (73%) indicated they generally do not
negotiate salary offers. Moreover, 90% of park and recreation administrators indicated that if the
interviewee has not heard from the interviewer in a reasonable amount of time, the interviewee
should contact the interviewer. Table 5 illustrates that the preferred time frame for follow-up
communication is "one week after the interview" (41%), followed by "two weeks after the
interview" (24.4%). Moreover, a phone call from the interviewee is the most preferred type of
follow-up contact. Fifty-one percent of respondents indicated they desire entry level employees to remain
employed by their agency for three to four years. However, 83% of respondents indicated that, in
reality, most entry level employees remain employed with their agency for three years or longer.
In addition, respondents indicated that 36% of their entry level employees usually remain with
their agency for five years or longer. Administrator Recommendations Park and recreation administrators also were given the opportunity to suggest key "do's"
and "don'ts" for interviewees. Respondents indicated that the most frequently occurring mistake
among interviewees is a lack of preparation. Additionally, according to the respondents in this
study, the second biggest mistake interviewees often make is failing to give complete answers to
interviewer questions. The interviewer respondents in this study suggested that interviewees should be prepared,
relaxed, and professional in attitude and appearance. In addition, respondents were very adamant
for interviewees to be honest. Figure 4 lists the most common interviewee "do's" and "don'ts" as
reported by park and recreation administrators. Interviews are still considered a popular means for exchanging information among
potential employees and agencies. In this exchange of information, first impressions are crucial
for solidifying constructive and potentially long-lasting employment relationships. Interviewee
communication skills, behavior, and presentation play a significant role in developing positive
first impressions and have been the focus of several studies (Hitt & Barr, 1989; Kinicki,
Lockwood, Horn, & Griffeth, 1990). Furthermore, Gilmore and Ferris (1989) stated that
"interviewers are impressed not by qualifications, but by presentation" (p. 562). This does not
diminish the importance of having solid qualifications, but rather highlights the importance for
interviewees to present the qualifications they possess in a favorable manner. Doing so can
enhance making a noteworthy first impression. However, negative first impressions many times
have more of an impact than positive ones, especially during the first few minutes of the
interview (Rowe, 1989) In order for interviewees to avoid negative first impressions and be successful in the
interview process, they must immerse themselves in the preparation for the interview. It is
important for interviewees to have a general understanding and knowledge about the agency prior
to the interview (Lindquist, 1991). Obtaining this general understanding and knowledge requires
inquiry and research. This preparatory research should include investigating the human resources,
programs, and location of the agency where employment is desired. According to the results of
this study, such information is easily collected, and most recreation agencies prefer interviewees
to request such information directly from them. Interviewees can access information about parks
and recreation agencies from many local and government agencies, as well as on the World Wide
Web. Hopeful employee prospects should not be discouraged if they are requested to make their
own travel arrangements to and from the interview. In fact, park and recreation interviewees
should plan to do so, and may even need to pay for all or part of their travel expenses. However,
park and recreation agencies are usually helpful when asked to provide insight regarding the
easiest logistical and cost efficient travel plans. Arriving for the interview at the appropriate time is also an important interviewee
consideration. The results of this study indicated that park and recreation administrators prefer
aspiring candidates to be early rather than merely on time. Practically speaking, the most
preferred time for entry level recreation interviewees to arrive for their interview is
approximately 10-15 minutes before their interview is scheduled to begin. Moreover, strategic interviewee preparation should include planning to bring extra copies
of work experience documentation (resume, transcript, letters of recommendation, etc.).
Assembling a portfolio is probably excessive when preparing for most park and recreation entry
level positions. However, when applying for job opportunities in large agencies, a portfolio may
be helpful. In addition, not being surprised by expectations of interviewers can facilitate pleasant
interviewee responses before, during, and after the interview. Such pleasant responses can make
a lasting impression on potential employers. However, answering questions and having
knowledgeable conversation is not the only part of affable discourse. A substantial amount of
research by social psychologists (e.g., Fletcher, 1989; Hitt & Barr (1989); Kinicki, Lockwood,
Horn, & Griffeth, 1990; Leary & Kowalski, 1990; Wanous, 1989) has been conducted regarding
impression management, which involves how individuals form impressions and how impressions
can be managed. Research clearly indicates that successful job interviewees display positive
communication skills and behaviors, both non-verbal and verbal. Non-verbal cues include bodily movement action such as eye contact or avoidance,
smiling, gesturing, body posture, body type (Rothblum, Miller, & Garbutt, 1988), head shaking
and facial expressions. Other non-verbal cues related to interviewee physical attractiveness and
appearance include grooming (Hamilton, 1993; Mack & Rainey, 1990; Stewart & Cash, 1994),
dress (Jenkins & Atkins; Forsythe, 1990), gender, and age (Raza & Carpenter, 1987). While the majority of park and recreation administrators do not agree with the use of
stress techniques and tactics during the actual interview process, interviewees can expect to be
asked questions pertaining to stressful job situations and case scenarios. Interviewees should
anticipate these types of poignant interviewer questions. Doing so may eliminate the chance that
interviewees inadvertently display negative non-verbal cues. Verbal communication cues, conversely, deal primarily with the appropriateness of the
verbal content and quality, fluency of speech, voice level, and composure of the interviewee.
(Ugbah & Evuleocha, 1992). Administrators in this study reported that once the interview begins,
interviewees will do well to relax and give brief, descriptive answers to interviewer questions. Moreover, administrators indicated the most important type of response to interviewer questions
are ones that are honest. Honesty is the foundation of trust, which is essential to cooperation and
long-term personal and professional growth and development. Implicit in honest responses is
demonstrating the courage and willingness to share interviewee weaknesses when necessary and
appropriate. In addition, because the interview is an exchange of information, asking pertinent questions about specific job duties is expected of interviewees. Similarly, interviewees should be
careful not to broach the topic of salary and benefits during the early stages of an interview. Park and recreation administrators indicated they desire for interviewees to be able to
discuss their past achievements and successes. However, interviewees should also give careful
attention not to be redundant when communicating these previous accomplishments. Moreover,
bragging was reported by the administrators in this study as a common mistake made by
interviewees. The most important elements of the interviewee background reported by park and
recreation administrators in this study were the past professional experiences of the interviewee,
previous related work experiences, and ability to communicate effectively. Interviewees should
also include comments about their initiative, their leadership skills and their ability to work well
with others. For potential entry level employees, this may appear discouraging. However, the fact
that park and recreation administrators are most interested in the past professional and related
work experience should motivate entry level job candidates to seek quality internships and part-time jobs in the recreation field while they are completing their education. If such opportunities
are not available, then potential employees in the park and recreation industry should seek jobs
where they can hone their leadership and communication skills in an environment that includes
groups and group efforts. No matter how exciting a new job may seem, potential entry level park and recreation
employees should exercise a measure of restraint if they are offered a position. Park and
recreation administrators indicated that interviewees should not feel as if they have to
immediately accept a job offer during the actual interview. Requesting a deadline is appropriate and preferred and sends a message to employers that the interviewee is willing to give careful
consideration to major decisions. If a job offer is not extended during the actual interview, interviewees should not make
the mistake of thinking that the interview process is complete. Interviewees can expect follow-up
communication from the interviewer or the agency regarding the status of their interview . If such
communication does not happen within a reasonable amount of time, interviewees should not
hesitate to initiate this communication. According to the results from this study, interviewees
should call the interviewer approximately one week, and no later than two weeks after the
interview. Based on the research findings from this study and the various administrator comments,
further research is warranted in several areas. While a number of current studies have been
conducted dealing with interviewer behavior, additional research should focus on interviewee
perceptions of the job interview process since candidates often associate the impressions of the
interviewer with that of the agency. Identifying the impact interviewers have relative to the
applicants' acceptance or willingness to accept a job offer is an area that requires further study. Other research studies should be directed at assessing the effectiveness of the recruitment
process, specifically selection interviews, for parks and recreation organizations. Research that
produces quantifiable data is necessary in order to validate the selection interview process, thus,
providing a sound framework in selecting the most qualified person for a position. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of technology in the
interview process. Capturing the impact that the use of video conferencing has had on the
interview process as well as the practice of sending video taped answers as a pre-cursor to a face-to-face interview meeting are important dimensions that should be further studied. Results could
provide guidance and direction for improving interviewing performance in these situations. Conclusion Due to the constant changes in the work environment and increased competition among
graduates, no matter how qualified an individual is for a job, getting hired requires much more
than having a quality resume. A major thrust of the related literature on the job search process
certainly focused on the dynamics of the selection interview and the many skills that interviewees
must possess. During the interview, the applicant must not only impress the interviewer but must also
communicate their personal and professional skills, characteristics and competencies. First
impressions are important and interviewees who have done their homework can leave lasting
impressions on potential employers. The way interviewees present themselves in terms of being
prepared, posture and dress, attitude, and persuasive oral and written communication skills will
play a significant role in excelling at the interview. Candidates who are engaged in a job search for positions in parks and recreation must
realize that they will encounter many different types of interviewers. Being prepared for all types
of interviewers is a key prerequisite for being successful in the selection interview. From start to finish, the interview process can be an enjoyable experience. Potential
employees should work to be thorough in their preparation, calm, clear, and honest in their
presentation, as well as polite and pleasant throughout all of their communication with
interviewers and their agency representatives. With careful, well-planned preparation and practice, applicants can master the necessary skills for being effective at the interview, and
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Table 2 Candidate Documentation Needed for Interview Table 3 Types of Interviews Conducted Table 4 When Interviewee Should Discuss Salary Table 5 Time Frame for Follow-up Communication After the InterviewReservation Gambling: Improving The Odds Through Natural Resource Recreation Management
Robert B. Buerger
University of North Carolina at Wilmington
University of North Carolina at Wilmington
Natural Resource-Based Recreation Opportunities on Native American Reservation Lands*Fish Hunt Camp Bike Boat Hike Snow Ski SiteSeeing 6 3 5 1 5 1 1 2 14 13 12 2 10 7 9 4 14 14 12 0 11 1 1 1 2 1 4 0 1 0 0 3 10 7 10 2 7 5 4 3 23 17 26 1 14 13 4 14 18 5 20 1 14 7 1 6 87 60 89 7 62 34 20 33
The Growth in Central City and Suburban Municipal
Recreation Land
Department of Recreation Management and Tourism
Arizona State University - Main
P.O. Box 874905
Tempe, AZ 85287-4905
Work: 602-965-3012
Home: 602- 829-8051
FAX: 602-965-5664
Faculty of Leisure and Environmental Management
The Buckinghamshire College
Wellesbourne Campus, Kingshill Road
High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire HP13 588
Work: 441-494-522-141
Home: 441-494-452-711
FAX: 441-494-524-392
Accepted: September, 2004
The Growth in Central City and Suburban Municipal
Recreation Land
Municipality State Municipality State
Mobile Alabama Stamford Connecticut
Chickasaw Alabama Darien Connecticut
Birmingham Alabama Washington D.C.
Mountain Brook Alabama Fairfax Virginia
Phoenix Arizona West Palm Beach Florida
Tempe Arizona Riviera Beach Florida
San Diego California Miami Florida
Oceanside California Coral Gables Florida
Stockton California Tampa Florida
Lodi California Clearwater Florida
Riverside California Jacksonville Florida
Redlands California Jacksonville Beach Florida
Los Angeles California Augusta Georgia
Montebello California Aiken South Carolina
Sacramento California Atlanta Georgia
Roseville California Marietta Georgia
San Francisco California Columbus Georgia
Alameda California Phenix City Alabama
Santa Barbara California Champaign Illinois
Lompoc California Rantoul Illinois
Vallejo California Chicago Illinois
Fairfield California Park Forest Illinois
Oxnard California Indianapolis Indiana
Santa Paula California Shelbyville Indiana
Anaheim California Davenport Iowa
Costa Mesa California Bettendorf Iowa
San Jose California Waterloo Iowa
Sunnyvale California Cedar Falls Iowa
Hartford Connecticut Evansville Indiana
East Hartford Connecticut Henderson Kentucky
Waterbury Connecticut Baltimore Maryland
Watertown Connecticut Annapolis Maryland
Worcester Massachusetts Buffalo New York
Shrewsbury Massachusetts Lancaster New York
Boston Massachusetts New York City New York
Braintree Massachusetts Hempstead New York
Chicopee Massachusetts Syracuse New York
Northampton Massachusetts Oswego New York
Lowell Massachusetts Troy New York
Billerica Massachusetts Saratoga Springs New York
Lansing Michigan Cincinnati Ohio
East Lansing Michigan Covington Kentucky
Ann Arbor Michigan Columbus Ohio
Ypsilanti Michigan Bexley Ohio
Grand Rapids Michigan Akron Ohio
Grand Haven Michigan Barberton Ohio
Detroit Michigan Dayton Ohio
Wayne Michigan Fairborn Ohio
Duluth Minnesota Toledo Ohio
Virginia Minnesota Oregon Ohio
Minneapolis Minnesota Cleveland Ohio
Coon Rapids Minnesota Bedford Ohio
St. Louis Missouri Youngstown Ohio
Alton Illinois Campbell Ohio
Omaha Nebraska Portland Oregon
Council Bluffs Iowa Vancouver Washington
Las Vegas Nevada Eugene Oregon
Henderson Nevada Springfield Oregon
Trenton New Jersey Lancaster Pennsylvania
Princeton New Jersey Columbia Pennsylvania
Jersey City New Jersey Philadelphia Pennsylvania
West New York New Jersey Phoenixville Pennsylvania
Paterson New Jersey Pittsburgh Pennsylvania
New Milford New Jersey Hempfield Pennsylvania
Rochester New York Wilkes-Barre
Pennsylvania Newark New York Nanticoke Pennsylvania
Providence Rhode Island Norfolk Virginia
Cranston Rhode Island Virginia Beach Virginia
Knoxville Tennessee Wheeling West Virginia
Oak Ridge Tennessee Moundsville West Virginia
Port Arthur Texas Charleston West Virginia
Orange Texas Dunbar West Virginia
Dallas Texas Green Bay Wisconsin
Grand Prairie Texas DePere Wisconsin
Fort Worth Texas Milwaukee Wisconsin
White Settlement Texas Brookfield Wisconsin
1970 % of Land 1985 % of Land
Hartford - Connecticut 19.8 Wheeling - West Virginia 22.8
New York City - New York 19.5 Dallas - Texas 22.2
Wheeling - West Virginia 18.8 San Diego - California 20.7
Youngstown - Ohio 17.1 Hartford - Connecticut 19.3
Duluth - Minnesota 16.6 New York City - New York 18.5
Minneapolis - Minnesota 15.0 Minneapolis - Minnesota 18.1
San Diego - California 13.6 Duluth - Minnesota 16.6
Portland - Oregon 13.0 Youngstown - Ohio 15.3
Philadelphia - Pennsylvania 12.3 Rochester - New York 13.9
Phoenix - Arizona 12.2 Baltimore - Maryland 12.2
Rochester - New York 12.0 Portland - Oregon 11.9
Baltimore - Maryland 11.8 Phoenix - Arizona 11.6
Champaign - Illinois 11.3 Ann Arbor - Michigan 11.2
Dallas - Texas 10.6 Omaha - Nebraska 11.2
Ann Arbor - Michigan 10.0 Lansing - Michigan 11.1
1970 % of Land 1985 % of Land
Princeton - New Jersey 24.3 Lancaster - Pennsylvania 26.0
Vancouver - Washington 13.2 Dunbar - West Virginia 23.1
Covington - Kentucky 11.3 Vancouver - Washington 20.7
Princeton - New Jersey 16.5
Yipsilanti - Michigan 13.4
Park Forest - Illinois 13.1
Marietta - Georgia 12.5
Alton - Illinois 10.9
n
Percent
Below 25,000
32
41.6
25,000 - 49,999
16
20.8
50,000 - 99,999
14
18.2
100,000 - 249,999
9
11.6
250,000 - 399,999
1
1.3
400,000 - 749,999
3
3.9
750,000 - 999,999
1
1.3
1,000,000 - 1,999,999
0
0.0
2,000,000 and above
1
1.3
NRPA Region
Great Lakes
25
33.3
Northeast
16
21.3
Pacific
7
9.4
Southeast
15
20.0
West
12
16.0
Alaska/Hawaii
0
0.0
Age
25 - 20
2
2.6
30 - 34
8
10.3
35 - 39
9
11.5
40 - 44
22
28.2
45 - 49
16
20.5
50 - 54
12
15.4
55 - 59
5
6.4
Over 60
4
5.1
Gender
Male
56
71.8
Female
22
28.2
Title
Director
51
65.4
Executive Director
10
12.8
Assistant Director
6
7.7
Coordinator
4
5.1
Years of Experience
1 - 4 years
6
7.7
5 - 8 years
8
10.3
9 - 12 years
8
10.3
13 - 16 years
10
12.8
17 - 20 years
16
20.4
21 years or more
30
38.5
n = 78
Documentation Item
Yes
Percent
No
Percent
Resume
66
84.6
12
15.4
Letters of recommendation
56
71.8
22
28.2
Transcript
37
47.4
41
52.6
Portfolio
26
33.3
52
66.7
n = 78
Documentation Item
Yes
Percent
No
Percent
Person to person interview
72
92.3
6
7.7
Group interview
42
53.8
36
46.2
Conference call interview
14
17.9
64
82.1
Situational interview
14
17.9
64
82.1
Tele-conference interview
9
11.5
69
88.5
n = 78
Salary Discussion
Yes
Percent
No
Percent
At the close of the interview
33
42.3
45
57.7
Don't discuss until after an offer is made
15
19.2
63
80.8
Don't bring up, let the interviewer bring it up
6
7.7
72
92.3
During the interview
5
6.4
73
93.6
Before the interview starts
1
1.3
77
98.7
n = 78
Time Span
Yes
Percent
No
Percent
One week after the interview
32
41.0
45
57.7
Two weeks after the interview
26
33.3
51
65.4
Several days after the interview
4
5.1
73
94.8
After two weeks of the interview
3
3.8
74
96.1
One day after the interview
0
0.0
77
100.0
n = 77
Figure 1. Five best questions interviewers asked and have been asked. (Ranked according to frequency of response)
Figure 2. Friedman rank order mean scores of interviewee qualifications and experiences according to importance as viewed by the interviewer. (The lower the mean score, the more important the qualification or experience)
Figure 3. Friedman rank order mean scores of interviewee abilities according to importance as viewed by the interviewer. (The lower the mean score, the more important the ability)
Figure 4. Interview do's and don'ts as viewed by interviewers. (Ranked according to frequency of response)
 Figure 1.
|
 Figure 2.
|
 Figure 3.
|
 Figure 4.
|
Professional Preparation for the Recreational Sports Specialist
Sarah J. Young, Ph. D., University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Craig M. Ross, Re. D., Indiana University
Contact: Dr. Sarah J. Young, Dr. Craig M. Ross,
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
UNLV Indiana University
Leisure Studies Program Recreation & Park Administration
4505 Maryland Parkway Box 453035
Las Vegas, NV 89154-3035
(702) 895-3932
Email: youngs@nevada.edu
Abstract
Recreational sport has experienced tremendous growth over the past couple of decades increasing the demand for qualified sport managers. There are two primary emphases in sport management which lead professionals to focus upon different aspects of sport. One of those emphases is recreational sports management. This article provides a thorough explanation of the professional preparation of the recreational sport manager through a description of the curriculum, professional organizations, and certifications that are common to this position. The settings where recreational sport managers are most likely to be found are described along with a discussion of the types of career opportunities that are available to individual educated and trained in this area.
Keywords: recreational sport, sport management, professional preparation
Introduction
Sport in American society has undergone tremendous change over the past several decades. These changes have had a significant impact on the way sport and leisure services have been delivered in the past, and will continue to be delivered in the future. On the one hand, sport has become very entertainment- and spectator-oriented with attendance records being broken at various sporting events. On the other hand, sport has become very participant-oriented involving diverse populations in a wide variety of programs and activities. With such a wide spectrum of sport participation by such large numbers of people, the impact of sport upon society has grown significantly. Kelly (1996) supported this observation by stating, "Sport has a major role in modern society as an element of the economy, a spectacle with symbolic meanings, an arena of development for the young, and in the leisure lives of many individuals" (p. 226).
Recreational sport management, as a part of leisure services, has also experienced a tremendous growth over the last couple of decades with sport participation far surpassing all other types of recreational activities (Shivers & de Lisle, 1997; Edginton, Jordan, DeGraaf, & Edginton, 1998). Robinson and Godbey (1997) in their book Time for Life have even described sports and fitness activities as "mainstays in the lifestyles of large numbers of Americans" (p. 186). The recreative aspect of sport in American culture today is well-established and a recognized contributor to human enjoyment and vitality. With this growth and interest there have been increased opportunities for employment in recreational sports with positions ranging from the face-to-face leadership roles of part-time personnel to top administrative positions. The academic areas of leisure studies and physical education have attempted to meet the needs and demands of both students and practitioners by offering both undergraduate and graduate sport management curriculums. Changing times and increasing interest and demand in sport participation and fitness by all age groups have spurred the growth of diverse academic professional preparation programs offering degrees and courses in sport management. The pursuit of adequate curricula to meet the many interests and demands of the wide variety of sport management programs is a difficult task. It appears that no single curriculum will fulfill this need, thus, colleges and universities have responded by developing and offering several curriculums.
There exist two primary types of curriculum or emphases in sport management which send professionals in different directions as far as a career focus. Traditionally, sport management programs have been housed in Kinesiology/Physical Education departments and have focused on the business side of professional and intercollegiate sports-specifically sports marketing, public relations, and fund raising. Since only a small percentage of individuals actively participate in sport at these levels, the majority of participation is in the form of spectating. Sport managers involved in this aspect of sport work with marketing, public relations, sales, communications, fund-raising, and even retail as essential aspects of their jobs. The bottom line in the jobs of these sport managers is profit-driven while providing entertainment for the millions of sports spectators who attend not only professional sport events, but collegiate, and even high school events. Some of the positions that are available to sport managers in this area are sport information director, athletic director, public relations manager, community relations manager, ticket sales manager, and sponsor relations director. Competition for these types of positions can be fierce as many individuals want to be affiliated with the spot light that professional or varsity sports attract. As a result, salaries tend to be low because the supply of people seeking jobs always exceeds the demand (Masteralexis, 1998). Often times the sport managers who have obtained success in these positions have obtained advanced degrees in law or business in addition to a degree in sport management.
A second and more recent emphasis of sport management, and the primary focus of this article, is upon the leadership and management of participatory sport experiences including the recreational sport participant. The focus of the recreational sport manager is to provide sport programs for the average, or below-average-skilled participant. What follows is a more in-depth look at the positions of the recreational sport manager, the settings where these positions are found, and the professional preparation that is involved for jobs in this area.
Why the Recreational Sport Manager is Needed
The primary goal of the recreational sport manager is to provide the highest quality program within the setting where he or she works. Mull, Bayless, Ross and Jamieson (1997) suggested there are three objectives in the provision of recreational sport programs that explain why the manager is needed. The first objective is service which involves providing a variety of sport programs through activities, facilities and personnel. The second objective is development through which social, mental and physical changes in the participant can occur. The third, and final objective is relations which deal with providing good customer service as well as promoting positive community relations in the setting where the program is located. These objectives assist in justifying the recreational sport manager's role in delivering programs as well as providing more meaningful insight into the job of the sport manager for students interested in pursuing this career path.
Types of Positions
There are four types of personnel commonly found in settings providing recreational sport services: administrative staff, program-administrative staff, program staff and auxiliary staff. The administrative staff is responsible for directing the operation of the sports program and its resources. Some specific duties of the administrator are to direct or influence the planning, acquisition, design, construction, and maintenance of sport facilities; supervise the total staff development program; prepare, present and monitor the annual budgets; and, interpret to the public the program philosophy and offerings. Typical job titles at this level are director, or executive director with the completion of a masters degree usually required. Individuals in these top administrative positions usually have a minimum of 10 to 12 years experience in a recreational sports program.
The program-administrative staff directs administrative policies, guidelines and resources, while monitoring programs, facilities and program staff. While individuals in this role engage in many administrative duties, they also serve as a liaison between the top administrator and the program staff. Job titles most often found at this level are associate director, program director, facility manager, and sports director. Individuals in these positions usually have earned both a bachelors and a masters degree in recreation, sport management, or a related field, and have a minimum of six to eight years of programming experience.
The program staff is an entry-level position which is responsible for direct contact with participants and the delivery of services. Individuals in this role organize and direct sport activities, initiate publicity and promotion, handle equipment utilization, purchasing and inventory, and implement policies for safety, participant control and governance. The program staff is also responsible for the recruitment, hiring, training, and scheduling of support staff. Typical job titles at this level are assistant director, coordinator and activity specialist. Many of these positions require a masters degree while others only require a bachelors degree, but prefer candidates with a masters degree. Most graduates of a recreational sport curriculum find full-time employment at the program staff level although many have gained experience from the auxiliary staff level.
The fourth category of recreational sports personnel is auxiliary staff. This staff position consists of hourly wage, or volunteer positions that provide face-to-face relationships with the participants in the program. The auxiliary staff primarily consists of seasonal or part-time positions such as officials, supervisors, lifeguards, maintenance crews, and youth sport coaches. Although this is the level at which many program staff gain experience, individuals obtaining employment at this level usually possess some type of specialized credentials such as first aid, CPR, sport official certification, or youth sport coaching certification.
Where Recreational Sport Positions are Found
The settings, or locations that one might find recreational sports personnel are varied. Mull et al. (1997) cite ten different types of settings where recreational sports personnel are likely to be found. The municipal setting consists of city and community parks and recreation programs providing sport experiences for different age groups residing in that particular location. Businesses and corporations implement recreational sports as a benefit to their employees often times providing on-site programs and facilities. Non-profit organizations provide another setting for recreational sports, with such agencies as YMCAs, YWCAs, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, and Girl Scouts. Recreational sport programs in these organizations are provided not only for fun, but also to help develop character, fitness, and positive living skills of the participants. Military installations, correctional facilities, and educational institutions also serve as settings for recreational sports providing a wide variety of sport activities for each of their respective clientele. Private clubs and vacation resorts are yet two more settings where recreational sports program occur. Private clubs, such as country clubs provide recreational sport opportunities for their membership while vacation resorts, such as hotels, motels and cruise ships, offer a wide variety of activities and special events for their guests.
Steps in Professional Preparation
Sport management is an unique area of study. The first sport management curriculum was implemented at Ohio University in 1966 with a graduate degree in sports administration. In 1980, there were 20 graduate programs in sport management known to exist. By 1985, 83 academic institutions were identified as providing a curriculum in sport management while by 1993, this number grew to 120 (NASPE-NASSM Joint Task Force, 1993). Today, nearly 250 sport management undergraduate and graduate programs exist in the United States alone.
Curriculums in sport management have changed somewhat since the original program at Ohio University. Historically, there was a strong physical education (non-teaching) orientation to the course content and career objectives. This link to the past is still apparent in many sport management curricula today which are rooted in Kinesiology/Physical Education departments on campuses. However, in many of today's recreational sport management curriculums there is a multi-disciplinary approach which borrows concepts and theories not only from recreation and physical education, but from business disciplines as well. In a recent survey of 132 institutions providing professional preparation in sport management, Ross, Jamieson, and Young (1998) found that while the majority of sport management curricula are administratively housed in departments of Kinesiology or Physical Education, a growing number of curricula were also found in departments of recreation and leisure studies. The survey also revealed that in almost one-half of the sport management curricula the primary emphasis was a balance of recreational sport management and professional sport marketing.
A typical undergraduate recreational sports curriculum consists of four major components: (a) general education courses, (b) "core" professional recreation education courses such as leisure philosophy, recreation leadership methods, programming principles and development, budgeting, and evaluation, (c) recreational sport management specialization requirements which include first aid and emergency care, facility management, sport/tournament programming, marketing, legal aspects of sports and personnel management, and (d) professional internship experience . The intent of the general recreation courses is to prepare students with the fundamental knowledge of recreation programming so they are equipped to enter the work-force at the program-staff level. This type of curriculum would then provide the foundation from which students can spring-board into specialized courses such as sport programming and tournament scheduling, personnel management, sport marketing and promotions, sport facilities, and legal aspects as they relate to recreational sport programming.
At the graduate level more emphasis is placed upon the administration of recreational sport programs through such courses as sport administration, finance, marketing, facility management, research methods and sport law. This administrative emphasis at the graduate level is supported by Kelley, Beitel, DeSensi and Blanton (1994) in their discussion of sport management curricula when they stated that persons with graduate degrees "would be prepared to accept positions at the administrative policy development level" (p. 98). Individuals earning a graduate degree are more likely to be hired in at the program-administrative level although the number of years of practical experience is still taken into consideration.
A common thread of the professional preparation program in sport management is practical, hands-on experience obtained through a practicum and/or internship experience. In many cases, these experiences are viewed as the foundation or cornerstone of the curriculum and a stepping stone to a professional job with that agency or similar agency. During these experiences with a sport agency, the student observes and learns from a recreation professional and performs many career related tasks. The internship provides the opportunity to apply theoretical concepts to practical situations.
Curricular standards in sport management are generally supported by the National Recreation and Park Association/American Association of Leisure and Recreation Council on Accreditation (NRPA/AALR) in the leisure service management area. The National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) Curriculum Committee has also provided direction in terms of recreational sport competencies and course content suggestions. The North American Society for Sport Management/National Association of Sport and Physical Education (NASSM/NASPE) has more specific sport management standards.
Professional Organizations and Certifications
A career in recreational sport management can certainly prove to be promising for those willing to pursue it. However, it is essential for recreational sport practitioners to maintain and refine their professional skills in order to stay current. Many recreational sports practitioners hold active memberships in a variety of professional organizations focused upon providing an opportunity for their members to share ideas, advance the industry standards, and guide the behavior of their members. Those professional organizations which are most closely aligned with recreational sports management are:
AAHPERD - American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance
NIRSA - National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association
NRPA - National Recreation and Park Association
NASSM - North American Society for Sport Management
AAALF - American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness
AALR - American Association for Leisure and Recreation
IHRSA - International Health and Racquet Sport Association
NESRA - National Employee Services and Recreation Association
CBI - Club Business International
AAU - Amateur Athletic Union
ACSM - American College of Sport Medicine
NASPE - National Association for Sport and Physical Education
These professional organizations with opportunities for conferences, workshops, seminars and management schools provide an important link in assisting the recreational sport manager to stay abreast of our rapidly changing society and its implications for program delivery.
Professional certifications also seem to be emerging as a common method of maintaining and refining recreational sport management skills. Espinosa (1997) supported the concept of professional certifications for recreational sports managers by stating "the mode of survival in today's dynamic climate requires that we be constant, active learners" (p. 35). Many opportunities exist for recreational sports professionals to gain certification, however, the most frequently obtained certifications by recreational sport practitioners are:
General Programming Certification Programs
CLP - Certified Leisure Professional (NRPA)
CRSS - Certified Recreational Sports Specialist (NIRSA)
CPO - Certified Pool Operator (National Swimming Pool Foundation)
Health and Fitness Certification Programs
Health and fitness certifications (American College of Sport Medicine and American Council on Exercise)
CHES - Certified Health Education Specialist
Youth Sport Coaching Certification Programs
National Youth Sport Coaches Association (NYSCA)
American Sport Education Program (Human Kinetics, Inc.)
Conclusion
Because of the tremendous role that sport now plays in our society and the demand for increased opportunities to participate in a myriad of recreational sport activities, there is an obvious need for programmers specializing in recreational sports management. While the similarities between general recreation practitioners and the recreational sport manager admittedly overlap, it is the scope of sport that creates the primary differentiation between the two professional roles. As a result, the professional preparation of students anticipating careers in recreational sport management differs from that of the general recreation practitioner by focusing upon the development of knowledge and skills directly related to sports programming.
Edginton, C. R., Jordan, D. J., DeGraaf, D. G., & Edginton, S. R. (1998). Leisure and life satisfaction: Foundational perspectives (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
Espinosa, C. (1997). Professional certification: Seizing the opportunity. NIRSA Journal, 21,(3), 35-37.
Kelley, D. R., Beitel, P. A., DeSensi, J. T., & Blanton, M. D. (1994). Undergraduate and graduate sport management curricular models: A perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 8, 93-101.
Kelly, J. R. (1996). Leisure (3rd ed.). Boston , MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Masteralexis, L. P. (1998). Professional sport. In L. P. Masteralexis, C. A. Barr, and M. A. Hums (Eds.), Principles and practice of sport management (pp. 275-306). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, Inc.
Mull, R. F., Bayless, K. G., Ross, C. M., & Jamieson, L. M. (1997). Recreational sport management (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing.
NASPE-NASSM Joint Task Force on Sport Management Curriculum and Accreditation. (1993). Standards for curriculum and voluntary accreditation of sport management education programs. Journal of Sport Management, (7), 159-170.
Robinson, J. P., and Godbey, G. (1997). Time for life: The surprising ways Americans use their time. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.
Ross, C. M., Jamieson, L. M., & Young, S. J. (1998). Professional preparation of sport management: A national study (Monograph). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, Department of Recreation and Park Administration.
Shivers, J. S. & de Lisle, L. J. (1997). The story of leisure: Context, concepts, and current controversy. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishing.
Employment Competencies in Public Parks and Recreation
Eric L. Longsdorf, Ph.D. Department of Public Health and Rehabilitative Services
Contact: Eric L. Longsdorf
Address Correspondences to: Eric L. Longsdorf
Mail Stop 201
The University of Toledo
2801 West Bancroft Street
Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390,
Phone: (419) 292-0893 (H)
Phone: (419) 530-2742 (W)
Email: eric.longsdorf@utoledo.edu
Accepted: September, 2004
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to identify the perceived importance of various recognized competencies for professional practice and personal credentialing as each relates to the successful provision of recreation, park resources, and leisure-related services within public parks and recreation. The specific objectives of this study were: 1) to determine the most important areas of professional preparation that should be covered in the greatest breadth in curricula used to prepare individuals for careers in public parks and recreation, and 2) to determine the perceived importance of demonstrating professional competency mastery through maintaining Certified Park and Recreation Professional (CPRP) certification. Results from this study indicated that public park and recreation administrators perceived the areas of administration and management and leisure programming strategies to be the areas that should be provided the greatest breadth of study in professional preparation curricula. Results further indicated that the perceived value of CPRP certification is growing within the profession.
Keywords: Public Recreation, Professional Preparation, Credentialing, Parks, Leisure
Introduction
Within the recreation, park resources, and leisure services profession the distinct body of knowledge that should be possessed by individuals preparing for entry-level positions within the profession are reflected in the Professional Competencies (series standards 8.00) of the Standards and Evaluative Criteria for Baccalaureate Programs in Recreation, Park Resources and Leisure Services (National Recreation and Park Association [NRPA], 2000). Formally accepted by the NRPA and American Association of Leisure and Recreation (AALR) sponsored Council on Accreditation in 1975 (NRPA, 1975), these standards represent the core areas of knowledge required for professional practice in the delivery of effective recreation, park resources and leisure-related services (Parr, 1996). The Professional Competency series consists of 42 criterion referenced standards. These standards are classified into eight specific topical classifications that address the following areas of professional understanding and practice: Conceptual Foundations, Leisure Services Profession; Leisure Services Delivery Systems; Programming Strategies; Assessment, Planning and Evaluation; Administration and Management; Legislative and Legal Aspects; and Field Experience. However, because the Professional Competency series standards are criterion referenced their use as a guide for professional preparation does have limitations. These limitations result from the fact that criterion referenced standards only represent minimum levels of proficiency (Baumgartner, Strong, & Hensley, 2002) and generally do not discern a relative standing or comparison (Lundegren & Farrell, 1985). As a result, what is difficult to discern from our professionÕs Professional Competency series standards is what topical classification areas are more important or less important as the competencies comprising each topical classification area apply to professional practice. This is not to state that any single Professional Competency standard or topical classification of standards is of no importance to preparation for professional practice, only that it should be expected that certain individual competencies and topical classification areas should require a greater breadth of study and understanding. The purpose of this study was to identify the perceived importance of various recognized competencies for professional practice and personal credentialing as each relates to the successful provision of recreation, park resources, and leisure-related services within public parks and recreation. The specific objectives of this study were: 1) to determine the most important areas of professional preparation that should be covered in the greatest breadth in curricula used to prepare individuals for careers in public parks and recreation, and 2) to determine the perceived importance of demonstrating professional competency mastery through maintaining Certified Park and Recreation Professional (CPRP) certification.
Method Instrumentation
The author developed a measurement instrument specific to the purpose of the study. Content items included in the measurement instrument were developed from the Professional Competencies (series standards 8.00) of the Standards and Evaluative Criteria for Baccalaureate Programs in Recreation, Park Resources, and Leisure Services (NRPA, 2000) and the testing domains outlined in the Official Study Guide for the Certified Park and Recreation Professional Examination (Rossman & McKinney, 2000). These references guided the development of the content items of the measurement instrument that addressed at minimum three professional competencies related to: conceptual foundations, leisure services profession; leisure services delivery systems; programming strategies; assessment, planning and evaluation; administration and management; and legislative and legal aspects. Content items of the measurement instrument also addressed the perceived level at which recreation, park resources, and leisure services professional preparation programs were preparing students for professional practice in public parks and recreation and the perceived importance of CPRP certification. Content items on the measurement instrument were randomly positioned, not including the content item addressing the perceived level of professional preparation of students and content items addressing CPRP certification. The content item addressing the level of professional preparation of students was positioned as the last scaled item on the measurement instrument. Content items addressing CPRP certification were positioned in demographic content items developed to profile each respondentÕs agency. Validity of the survey questionnaire was verified by the authorsÕ decision to adopt NRPA published Professional Competency standards. Reliability testing for all scaled content items was done using a test-retest procedure. Reliability was measured using PearsonÕs r correlation coefficients. The responses to the 34 scaled content items were summed to create a total score. The scores on this scale were found to have acceptable reliability (r = .77).
Sample Selection
Six Hundred administrators operating public park and recreation agencies from across the United States were randomly identified using systematic sampling from a database of administrators registered as members with the NRPA. In order to be eligible to participate in the study a respondent had to be employed at the time the survey instrument was received as the director, supervisor, or administrator of the public park and recreation agency in which the measurement instrument was addressed. Out of the 600 potential respondents identified for the study 567 met the study criteria. RespondentÕs solicited to participate in the study received: a personalized cover letter indicating participant identification procedures, confidentiality procedures, and information pertaining to the studyÕs purpose; a copy of the measurement instrument; and a coded self-addressed pre-stamped envelope for returning the completed measurement instrument.
Response Rate
An initial and follow-up mailing of the measurement instrument yielded 331 responses, a return rate of 58.38%. Twenty-eight of the survey instruments returned were removed from the study due to incomplete or unusable data which yielded 303 useable responses and a usable response rate of 53.44%.
Data Analysis
Data analysis for the study was done using SPSS statistical software. All data reported in the result section was analyzed and reported as grouped data. Only measurement instruments with no missing points of data were included in the study analysis. The total number of respondents for each content item analyzed and reported is 303.
Results
The results of this study are presented in 11 brief sections. The first result section reports the mean rankings of all professional preparation competency areas addressed on the measurement instrument. Sections two through eight report the mean rankings of all professional preparation competencies grouped into the appropriate topical classification area for which each was developed. Sections two through eight are presented in the following order: (1) the conceptual foundations of leisure services; (2) the leisure services profession; (3) the leisure services delivery system; (4) leisure programming strategies; (5) leisure assessment, planning and evaluation; (6) leisure administration management; and (7) the legal aspects of leisure service delivery. Result section nine reports the percentile ranking of each topical classification area. Result Section 10 reports the mean ranking of the respondentÕs perceived level at which students graduating from recreation, park resources, and leisure services professional preparation programs are being prepared for professional practice. Result section 11 reports the respondentÕs perceived importance of demonstrating competency mastery through maintaining CPRP certification. Means reported in result sections one through eight reflect a perceived level of importance on a five-point scale (i.e., 1=Not at All Important, 5=Very Important). The mean reported in result section 10 reflects the perceived level of professional preparation of recreation, park resources, and leisure services students on a five-point scale (i.e., 1=Very Well, 5= Not Well). Result section 11 reports the perceived importance of CPRP certification to professional practice using frequency data.
Individual Professional Preparation Competency Means
Out of the 33 competency content items included in the measurement instrument respondents identified three (9%) as having a mean importance ranking ranging from 4.50 to 5.00, twelve (36%) ranging from 4.00 to 4.49, sixteen (49%) ranging from 3.50 to 3.99, one (3%) ranging from 3.00 to 3.49, and one (3%) ranging from 2.50 to 2.99. Of those competencies that reported a mean importance ranking ranging from 4.50 to 5.00, (n=3) three (100%) were competencies related to administration and management. Competencies reported with a mean importance ranking ranging from 4.00 to 4.49 (n=12) included five (42%) related to administration and management, three (25%) related to the leisure services profession, two (17%) related to leisure programming strategies, one (8%) related to legislative and legal aspects, and one (8%) related to assessment, planning and evaluation. Mean importance rankings ranging from 3.50 to 3.99 (n=16) included five (31%) competencies related to assessment, planning and evaluation, four (25%) competencies related to conceptual foundations, three (19%) competencies related to legislative and legal aspects, three (19%) competencies related to the leisure services delivery system, and one (6%) competency related to leisure programming strategies. Only two competencies had reported mean importance rankings below 3.50. These competencies were related to assessment, planning and evaluation and the leisure services profession. Overall, thirty-two (97%) of the professional preparation competencies included on the measurement instrument had a reported mean ranking that fell above the median value of the five-point scale used to measure perceived importance. Only one professional preparation competency Òcompetency in understanding the historical development of the leisure services professionÓ reported a mean ranking below the median value of the scale. Table 1 reports the mean responses in descending order for all professional preparation competencies included in the study. (Insert Table 1)
Conceptual Foundations
The conceptual foundations professional competency area was addressed by four competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding the relationship between planning, design, development, and leisure behavior on the natural environmentÓ; ÒUnderstanding the significance of play, recreation, and leisureÓ; ÒUnderstanding the foundations of play, recreation, and leisureÓ; and ÒUnderstanding the significance of play, recreation, and leisure and human developmentÓ. Table 2 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to conceptual foundations understanding. (Insert Table 2)
Leisure Services Profession
The leisure services profession professional competency area was addressed by four competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding the roles and function of leisure programs in contemporary societyÓ, ÒUnderstanding the concept of professionalismÓ, ÒUnderstanding the historical development of the leisure services professionÓ, and ÒUnderstanding the current forces impacting the leisure professionÓ. Table 3 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to leisure services profession understanding. (Insert Table 3)
Leisure Services Delivery System
The leisure services delivery system professional competency area was addressed by three competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding of and ability to communicate concerns of the leisure service systemÓ; ÒUnderstanding the roles and interrelationships of the diverse services available to promote and enhance the leisure experience and the ability to use such leisure delivery servicesÓ; and ÒUnderstanding leisure service delivery practices as they apply to designing and operating leisure programs, services, and facilitiesÓ. Table 4 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to leisure services delivery system understanding. (Insert Table 4)
Leisure Programming Strategies
The leisure programming strategies professional competency area was addressed by three competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒDeveloping leisure programs for groupsÓ, ÒUnderstanding the components of programmingÓ and ÒUnderstanding of the concepts and methods of leisure resources used to facilitate participant involvementÓ. Table 5 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to leisure programming strategy understanding. (Insert Table 5)
Assessment, Planning and Evaluation
The assessment, planning and evaluation professional competency area was addressed by seven competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding the methods for assessing leisure resources, areas, facilities, and environmental impactsÓ; ÒUnderstanding of and ability to use computer software available for planning, assessment and/or evaluationÓ; ÒUnderstanding of and ability to develop, implement, and evaluate that goals and objectives of a leisure program have been metÓ; ÒUnderstanding how to interpret and apply research and evaluation methodology to leisure servicesÓ; ÒUnderstanding the procedures for proper design of leisure service areas and facilitiesÓ; ÒUnderstanding assessment procedures and techniquesÓ and ÒUnderstanding the methods for the evaluation of leisure programs and servicesÓ. Table 6 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to assessment, planning and evaluation. (Insert Table 6)
Administration and Management
The administration and management professional competency area was addressed by eight competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding administration and managementÓ; ÒUnderstanding the basic techniques of budgeting, finance, and fiscal accountabilityÓ; ÒUnderstanding of and the application of personnel management techniquesÓ; ÒUnderstanding of and ability to use computers to conduct administrative and management responsibilitiesÓ; ÒUnderstanding the methods and procedures related to the operation of resources, areas, and facilitiesÓ; ÒUnderstanding of and ability to communicate effectivelyÓ, ÒUnderstanding of and ability to use basic techniques in marketing, public relations, and promotion strategies to promote leisure servicesÓ; and ÒUnderstanding the basic techniques and strategies of marketingÓ. Table 7 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to administration and management. (Insert Table 7)
Legislative and Legal Aspects
The legislative and legal aspects professional competency area was addressed by four competency descriptors. Descriptors were presented on the measurement instrument as follows: ÒUnderstanding risk management concepts and developing and implementing risk management conceptsÓ, ÒUnderstanding the legal foundations of leisure service delivery and the impact of legislative policy formation on leisure delivery systemsÓ, ÒUnderstanding the role of regulatory agents and ability to complyÓ, and ÒUnderstanding legal conceptsÓ. Table 8 displays the mean responses for each competency developed to measure the perceived importance of professional preparation as it relates to legislative and legal aspects. (Insert Table 8)
Percentile Rankings for all Topical Classification Areas
Each topical classification area had its own scale from which its composite mean and composite standard deviation was derived. This was due to the variable number of questions comprising each topical classification area. As a result, in order to facilitate a comparison of the perceived importance of each topical classification area as it relates to the successful provision of recreation, park resources and leisure-related services, the composite mean of each topical classification area was adjusted for scale range yielding a weighted mean. The adjustment to weighted means allowed for each weighted mean to be converted to a standard score. The standard score of each topical classification area was then converted to reflect its perceived percentile rank of importance. Table 9 reports the percentile rank of each topical classification area in descending order. (Insert Table 9).
Perception of Professional Preparation
Results indicated a mean of 2.80 (SD = .849) on the five-point scale provided to measure the perceived level at which recreation, park resources, and leisure services students were being prepared for professional practice.
Perception of the Importance of CPRP Certification
In order to descriptively measure the importance of CPRP certification in regard to professional practice, the author selected to collect information related to the role CPRP certification played in the hiring process of the agency in which the respondent was employed. This decision was made in an attempt to reduce personal bias toward the credential, and provide data to compare to research indicating that CPRP certification is receiving a strengthening embrace within the profession (Hubble & Taylor, 2003; Rossman & McKinney, 2000).
Results indicated that 16 (5%) of the of the agencies in which respondents were employed required CPRP certification for obtaining employment, 130 (43%) agencies indicated preference toward the credential in their hiring process, 138 (46%) agencies did not consider the credential in their hiring process, and 19 (6%) had no knowledge of the credential.
Conclusions Results from this study indicated that individuals preparing for a career in public parks and recreation should receive professional preparation in all topical classification areas outlined in the Professional Competencies (series standards 8.00) of the Standards and Evaluative Criteria for Baccalaureate Programs in Recreation, Park Resources, and Leisure Services (NRPA, 2000). The topical classification area perceived as requiring the most breadth of understanding was administration and management. This would indicate that academicians should allocate the greatest breadth of professional preparation in this area, ensuring upon graduation that students possess the following:
· strong communication skills (e.g., technical writing, speech, audio visual);
· understanding of administration and management concepts (e.g., organizational behavior, accountability, interpersonal relations, decision making strategies);
· understanding of techniques related to budget, finance, and fiscal accountability;
· ability to make application of marketing, public relations and other promotion techniques and strategies;
· understanding of the administrative operational methods and procedures;
· ability to make application of personnel management techniques (e.g., job analysis, recruitment selection, training, career development, evaluation) and;
· strong computer skills (e.g., word processing, spread sheet development, specialized recreation-related software).
Results also indicate that academicians should include within their curriculums course work that ensures the following student learning objectives:
· understanding of the concepts of professionalism (e.g. role of a profession, role of professional organizations, responsibilities of a professional, professional competency, delivery of leisure services, resources available for professional development);
· ability to develop leisure programs;
· understanding of group dynamics, group processes, and leadership techniques;
· ability to develop outcome oriented goals and objectives for individuals and groups;
· understanding of and ability to develop and implement risk management plans
· understanding of current issues, trends and future projections impacting the profession;
· understanding and ability to evaluate that the goals of a leisure program are being met; and
· understanding of the roles and functions of leisure in contemporary society.
Based on the perceived Òbelow-averageÓ mean reported in relation to the median of the five-point scale used to measure perceived professional preparation it could be concluded that many professional preparation programs may need to develop more stringent program exit criteria beyond the traditional use of minimum grade point averages. (e.g., exit exams). Given the reported frequency of 146 (48%) agencies from the study sample requiring or preferring CPRP certification in their hiring process and current CPRP eligibility requirements it can be concluded that students considering a career in public parks and recreation would be best served by attending a NRPA/AALR accredited program. This would allow the student to make application to sit for the CPRP exam immediately upon graduation. Although research has suggested that disparities between accredited and nonaccredited programs may not be directly a result of educational inadequacy among nonaccredited programs, but the inability of smaller programs to meet organizational and operational accreditation standards (Longsdorf, 2001; Ricciardo & Longsdorf, 2002), students graduating from accredited programs are provided an incremental advantage in the employment market providing they successfully obtain certification.
References
Baumgarter, T. A., Strong, C. H., & Hensley, L. D. (2002). Conducting and reading research in health and human performance. (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Hubble, S. & Taylor, M. (2003). Certifiably worth it: The benefits of certification are endless. Parks and Recreation, 38(1), 35-39.
Longsdorf, E. L. (2001). Faculty perceptions of the academic preparation of recreation, parks and leisure services students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toledo, Toledo, OH.
Lundegren, H.M., & Farrell, P. (1985). Evaluation for leisure service managers. New York: Saunders College.
National Recreation and Park Association. (1975). Standards and evaluative criteria for recreation, leisure services and resource curricula baccalaureate and masters degree programs. Ashburn, VA: Author.
National Recreation and Park Association. (2000). Standards and evaluative criteria for baccalaureate programs in recreation, park resources and leisure services. Ashburn, VA: Author.
Parr, M. G. (1996). A cognitive approach to understanding the conceptual structure of the parks, recreation, and leisure services field. Schole, 11, 8-22.
Ricciardo, J. & Longsdorf, E. (2002). An examination of variables distinguishing accredited from nonaccredited recreation, park resources and leisure services programs. In R. Schuster (Ed.), Proceedings of the 2002 Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium. (Gen. Tech Rep. NE-302, p. 104-108). U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
Rossman, J. R., & McKinney, W. R. (2000). Official study guide for the certified park and recreation professional examination. Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association.
| Table 1 Individual Competency Mean rankings | ||
| Individual Competency Mean Rankings Competency | Mean | SD |
| Understanding of and ability to communicate effectively | 4.57 | .656 |
| Understanding administration and management concepts | 4.53 | .602 |
| Understanding the basic techniques of budgeting, finance, and fiscal accountability | 4.52 | .699 |
| Understanding the concepts of professionalism | 4.34 | .763 |
| Developing leisure programs for groups | 4.29 | .750 |
| Understanding the components of programming | 4.27 | .741 |
| Understanding of and ability to use basic techniques in marketing, public relations, and promotion strategies to promote leisure services | 4.23 | .732 |
| Understanding risk management concepts and developing and implementing risk management plans. | 4.20 | .734 |
| Understanding the methods and procedures related to the operation of resources, areas, and facilities | 4.13 | .756 |
| Understanding of and the application of personnel management techniques | 4.13 | .808 |
| Understanding of and ability to use computers to conduct administrative and management responsibilities | 4.11 | .794 |
| Understanding the current forces impacting the leisure profession | 4.09 | .769 |
| Understanding of and ability to develop, implement, and evaluate that the goals and objectives of a leisure program or service have been met | 4.06 | .732 |
| Understanding the roles and functions of leisure service programs in contemporary society | 4.05 | .836 |
| Understanding the basic techniques and strategies of marketing | 4.04 | .801 |
| Understanding the methods for assessing leisure resources, areas, facilities, and environmental impacts | 3.98 | .707 |
| Understanding the methods for the evaluation of leisure programs and services | 3.92 | .716 |
| Understanding the procedures for proper design of leisure service areas and facilities | 3.92 | .761 |
| Understanding the significance of play, recreation, and leisure | 3.92 | .859 |
| Understanding and ability to use computer software available for planning, assessment and/or evaluation | 3.91 | .829 |
| Understanding of the concepts and methods of leisure resources to facilitate participant involvement | 3.91 | .790 |
| Understanding leisure service delivery practices as they apply to designing and operating leisure programs, services and facilities | 3.89 | .768 |
| Understanding of and ability to communicate concerns of the leisure service system | 3.85 | .878 |
| Understanding the relationships between planning, design, development, and leisure behavior on the natural environment | 3.84 | .801 |
| Understanding of the role of regulatory agents and ability to comply | 3.80 | .827 |
| Understanding the significance of play, recreation, and leisure as it relates to human growth and development | 3.78 | .904 |
| Understanding the roles and interrelationships of the diverse services available to promote and enhance the leisure experience and the ability to use such leisure delivery services | 3.73 | .875 |
| Understanding legal concepts | 3.72 | .853 |
| Understanding the conceptual foundations of play, recreation, and leisure | 3.70 | .906 |
| Understanding the legal foundations of leisure service delivery and the impact of legislative policy formation on leisure delivery systems | 3.61 | .861 |
| Understanding assessment procedures and techniques | 3.57 | .818 |
| Understanding how to interpret and apply research and evaluation methodology to leisure services | 3.29 | .880 |
| Understanding the historical development of the leisure services profession | 2.94 | .889 |
| Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | ||
| N = 303 |
Conceptual Foundation Competency Mean Rankings | ||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 3.92 | .859
| 3.84 | .801
| 3.78 | .904
| 3.70 | .906
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | ||||
Leisure Service Profession Competency Mean Rankings | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 4.09 | .769
| 4.05 | .836
| 2.94 | .889
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Leisure Service Delivery Sytem Competency Mean Rankings | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 3.89 | .768
| 3.85 | .878
| 3.73 | .875
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Leisure Programming Strategies Competency Mean Rankings | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 4.29 | .750
| 4.27 | .741
| 3.91 | .790
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Assessment, Planning and Evaluation Competency Mean Rankings | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 4.57 | .656
| 4.06 | .732
| 3.98 | .707
| 3.92 | .761
| 3.91 | .829
| 3.57 | .818
| 3.29 | .880
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Adminstration and Management Competency Mean Rankings | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 4.57 | .656
| 4.53 | .602
| 4,52 | .699
| 4.23 | .732
| 4.13 | .756
| 4.13 | .808
| 4.11 | .794
| 4.04 | .801
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legislative and Legal Aspects | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mean | SD
| 4.20 | .734
| 3.80 | .827
| 3.72 | .853
| 3.61 | .861
| | Note: Mean based on five-point scale (1 = Not at All Important, 5 = Very Important) | N = 303 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Topical Classification Area Percentile Ranks | ||||||||
| Mean | Weighted Mean | Standard Score | zValue | Percentage | Percentage Rank | | ||
| 34.26 | 1.67 | 1.99 | .0233 | 2.33 | 97.67 | | ||
| 12.47 | 1.04 | .07 | .4721 | 47.21 | 52.79 | | ||
| 15.42 | .963 | -.15 | .4404 | 44.04 | 44.04 | | ||
| 11.47 | .955 | -.17 | .4325 | 43.25 | 43.25 | | ||
| 15.33 | .957 | -.17 | .4325 | 43.25 | 43.25 | | ||
| 26.65 | .951 | -.18 | .4286 | 42.86 | 42.86 | | ||
| 15.24 | .552 | -1.39 | .0823 | 8.23 | 8.23 | | ||
Note: Areas under standard normal curve for values of z to compute percentile rank were identified from Fisher, R.A. & Yates, F. (1974). Statistical tables for biological, agricultural and medical research. (6th ed.). In Hinkle, D.E., Wiersma, W., & Jurs, S.G. (1994). Applied statistics for the behavioral sciences. (3rd ed.). Geneva, IL: Houghton Mifflin. | ||||||||